LB 
5011 

3chool   manafrement. . 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 


Los  Angeles 


Form  L-1 


30\\ 


llf'V''.?fc  iff  .'l'iT7;  -.TJMT' 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


AUG  4      192f 

JUL    '      1925 

^^CT   2  8  1925 

"AY  3      192b 
2  5  1929 

DEO  4     1952 
DEC  2  4  f9l5f 


DEC  2 


ff£CO 


DEC  3  1  REC» 


Form  L-9-2ni-7,'22 


SCHOOL  MANAGEmT: 

INCLUDING  A   FUlL   DISCUSSION  OF  ,     ^ 

%i\m\  €m\m%  Scl]00l  itycs,  %i\m\  ioljentmcut, 


PROFESSIONAL  RELATIONS  OF  THE  TEACHER. 


DESIGNED  FOR  USE  BOTH  AS  A  TEXTBOOK  AND  AS  A  BOOK  OF  REFER- 
ENCE FOR  TEACHERS,  PARENTS  AND  SCHOOL  OFFICERS. 


BY 

A.  N.  RAUB,  A.M.,  Ph.D., 

Piesident  of  Delaware  College,  Kewark,  Del.,  and  Author  of  "Lessom 

in  English,"  "Practical  English  Grammar,"  "Practical 

Rhetoric,"  "Studies  in  English  and  American 

Literature,'"  "  Methods  of  Teaching,"  etc. 


iiZZ 


PHILADELPHIA: 

RAUB     &     CO 

1889. 


Copyright, 

ALBERT  N.  RAUB,   PH.  O., 

1882. 


Seventh  and  Cherry  Streets,  Phila. 


Wkstcott  &  Thomson, 
Slereotppers  and  Eledrotypers,  PhUada. 


LB 
30\\ 


PREFACE. 

^'  

The  Author  of  this  book  believes  that  ixiaching  is  a 
J      science  based  on  principles  as  firmly  fixed,  as  readily  de- 
termined, and  capable  of  being  as  thoroughly  system- 
atized, as  those  of  either  law,  medicine,  or  theology. 

He  believes,  also,  that  teaching  is  destined  to  rank 
among  the  foremost  of  the  learned  professions,  and  that, 
considered  with  reference  to  the  magnitude  and  import- 
ance of  the  work  to  be  accomplished,  this  profession  is 
inferior  to  no  other. 

He  believes,  therefore,  in  the  necessity  of  special  prep- 
aration for  this  calling  as  for  other  important  callings  in 
f,  life,  and  that  no  one  should  assume  the  duties  and  re- 
\^  sponsibilities  incident  to  teaching  without  a  knowledge 
'   of  the  human  body,  the  functions  of  the  physical  organs, 
and  the  laws  of  health,  as  well  as  a  knowledge  of  the 
o  human  mind,  its  faculties,  and  the  methods  of  their  de- 
velopment and  culture.     He  holds,  also,  that  the  teacher 
should  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  best  methods 
of  management,  as  well  as  be  entirely  familiar  with  the 
most  valuable  methods  of  instruction  and  culture.   With- 
out this  loiowledge  the  teacher  can  be  only  an  experi- 
menter who  works  at  random ;  with  it,  he  is  prepared  to 
win  success  and  aid  in  elevating  his  calling  to  the  dig- 
nity which  should  characterize  it  as  a  profession. 

3 


4  PREFACE. 

It  is  the  object  of  this  book  to  discuss  briefly,  but  as 
thoroughly  as  possible,  the  subject  of  School  Manage- 
ment— including  School  Requisites;  School  Organization, 
both  temporary  and  permanent;  School  Work,  its  ob- 
jects and  the  means  of  securing  the  best  results ;  School 
Ethics ;  School  Government ;  and  the  Professional  Re- 
lations of  the  Teacher, — a  knowledge  of  all  of  which  is 
necessary  to  successful  professional  teaching. 

Want  of  a  knowledge  of  good  management  is  a  pro- 
lific source  of  failure  in  school  work ;  and  such  know- 
ledge is,  therefore,  specially  important  to  the  teacher. 

This  book  aims  to  include  the  principles  on  which  has 
been  based  the  successful  experience  of  the  best  teachers 
of  this  and  other  countries,  so  arranged  as  to  make  the 
information  available  not  only  in  the  class-room,  but 
also  to  the  private  student,  whether  teacher,  parent,  or 
school  officer. 

The  Author  advocates  no  untried  theories.  His  aim 
is  to  impart  information  such  as  is  deemed  valuable  to 
all  who  have  control  of  children.  He  offers  only  such 
suggestions  as  have  been  found  valuable  in  practice,  and 
points  out  the  faults  and  mistakes  which  his  observation 
has  convinced  him  are  the  most  frequent  causes  of 
failure.  He  sincerely  hopes  that  the  book  may  prove 
specially  valuable  to  every  earnest  teacher  desirous  of 
success  in  his  calling. 

A.N.  R. 

State  Normal  School,  Lock  Haven,  Pa.,  \ 
Aug.  24,  1882.  i 


CONTENTS. 


PAGR 

INTRODUCTION 11 

CHAPTER  I. 

SCHOOL  REQUISITES. 

I.  ScnooL-IIousES 13 

1.  Th&  Location 14 

1.  Healtlifulness  of  the  Site 14 

2.  Convenience  of  Access 15 

3.  Quiet 16 

4.  Beauty 10 

2.  The  Size  and  Proportions 17 

3.  The  Architecture 17 

4.  IntoTial  Arrangement 18 

II.  Arrangement  and  Size  of  the  Grounds 20 

1.  Size    .    .       21 

2.  Convenience  of  Arrangement 21 

3.  Beauty  of  the  Grounds 21 

4.  Appurtenances 22 

III.  ScHooii  Furniture  and  Apparatus 23 

1.  Desks 23 

2.  Blackboard 23 

3.  Erasers 24 

4.  Pointers      24 

5.  Reading-Charts 2o 

6.  Numeral  Fraine 25 

7.  Geographical  Apparatus 25 

8.  Cabinets 26 

9.  Dictionary 26 

IIoAv  to  Secure  Apparatus 26 

5 


6  CONTENTS. 

PAOR 

IV.  School  Hygiene 27 

1.  Lujhting 28 

2.  Heating 29 

3.  Venlilation 31 

4.  Condilion  of  Floors  and   Walls 33 

5.  Posture  of  Pupils 34 

6.  Exercise 35 

7.  Play 36 

8.  Hyyienic   Habits  of  Pupils 39 

Suggestions  on  School  Hygiene 42 

V.  ScHooii  Grades 43 

1.  Advantages 44 

2.  Objection  to  Graded  Schools 46 

3.  The  Number  of  Grades 46 

4.  Manner  of   Grading 47 

5.  The  Kindergarten 49 

VI.  School  Aids 49 

1.  Textbooks 50 

1.  Tlie  Objects  of  Textbooks 50 

2.  The  Characteristics  of  Good  Textbooks 51 

3.  The  Abuse  of  Textbooks- 54 

4.  The  Selection  of  Textbooks 55 

5.  Tl\e  Ownersliip  of  Textbooks 56 

2.  The  School  Library 56 

3.  School  Becords 58 


CHAPTER  II. 

SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 

Permanent  Organization 66 

1.  School   Classification 66 

Advantages  of  Classification 67 

Principles   of   Classification 68 

2.  Programme 72 

Characteristics  of  a  Good  Programme 72 

A  dvantages  of  a  Good  Programme 74 

3.  School  Signals 77 


CONTENTS.  7 

PAGE 

4.  Hand  Signals 79 

5.  I'/ie  Openin'j  and  the  Closing  of  School 80 

6.  Sealing 82>* 

7.  Becesses      82 


CHAPTER  III. 


SCHOOL    WORK. 

I.  Study 85 

1.  The  Objects  of  Study 85 

1.  Discipline 85 

2.  The  Acquisition  of  Knowledge 86 

a,  Expertness 87 

4.  Moral  Culture 88 

5.  Aspiration 88 

2.  Conditions   of  Successful   Study 89 

3.  Helps   to   Stxcdy 90 

4.  Incentives  to  Study 91 

Proper   Incentives 91 

Unwise   Incentives 97 

5.  How  to  Study 103 

G.  Attention 105 

7.  Rules  for  Study 109 

II.  Recitation Ill 

1.  Objects  of  the  Recitation Ill 

2.  Methods  of  Recitation 115 

1.  The  Socratic  Method 116 

2.  The  Topical  Method 117 

3.  The   Question   Method 118 

4.  The  Discussion  Method 119 

5.  The  Convei-satioual  jNIethod 120 

6.  The  Oral  or  Lecture  Method 121 

3.  The  Art  of  Questioning 122 

1.  Objects  of  Questioning 122 

2.  How  to  Put  Questions 124 

3.  The  Subject-Matter  of  Questions 126 

4.  The  Form  of  Questions 127 

5.  Tlie  ]\[amier  of  Putting  Questions 128 


8  CONTENTS. 

PAcn 

4.  Answeit       ll^S 

5.  Orilicism •  136 

6.  Preparation  for  the  Recitation 131 

1.  Tlie  Teacher's  Preparation 131 

2,  The  Pupil's   Preparation 133 

7.  The  Teacher  in  the  Recitation 134 

8.  The  Pupil  in  the  Recitation 137 

III.  Examinations 138 

1.  Objects  of  Examinations 138 

2.  Scope  of  the  Examination 139 

3.  Frequency  of  Examinations 141 

4.  Method   of  Examining 142 

5.  Length   of  Examinations  ■ 143 

IV.  Keviews 144 

Frequency  of  Reviews 145 

V.  School  Keports 146 

VI.  Graduation  in  Public  Schools 149 

Examination  for    Graduation 151 

VII.  A  Course  of  Study  for  Country  Schools 152 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SCHOOL    ETHICS. 

1.  Duties  of  the  Teacher 153 

1.  To  Pupils 153 

2.  To   the   Community 157 

3.  To   his   Profession IGO 

4.  To  Himself 165 

2.  Duties  of  Pupils 1 66 

3.  Duties  of  School   Ofliccrs 167 

4.  Duties  of  the  Superintendent 169 


CHAPTER  V. 

SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT. 

1.  Objects  of  School  Government 171 

2.  School  Control 173 


CONTENTS.  9 

PAOK 

3.  Elements  of  Governinr/  Power ...  173 

4.  Causes  of  Disorder 185 

5.  Means  of  Avoiding  Disorder 191 

6.  Rules  and  Meyulat ions 196 

7.  School   Punishments 200 

1.  Objects  of  School  Punisliment 200 

2.  Principles  Governing  Punishment 201 

3.  The  Degree  of  Punishment 203 

4.  Kinds  of  Punishment 20G 

1.  .Judicious  Punishments 206 

2.  Injudicious   I'unishments 223 

8.  How  to  Detect  Offenders 225 

9.  The  Self-Eeportiny  System 228 

10.  Pardons 229 

11.  Punishment  of  Offenses 231 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE     TEACHER. 

1.  The  Teacher's  Physical  Qualifications 243 

2.  The  Teacher's  Intellectual  Qualificutions 245 

3.  T'he  Teacher's  Professional   Qualifications 248 

4.  The  Teacher's  Moral  Qualificatinm 254 

6.  Faults  to  be  Avoided  by  Teacher 262 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


INTRODUCTION. 

School  management  is  that  department  of  educa- 
tional science  which  treats  of  the  management  and  con- 
trol of  schools.  It  includes  not  only  school  economy 
jiroper,  but  also  school  government  and  school  ethics. 
It  lias  for  its  object  the  regulation  of  all  school  work  in 
such  a  manner  as  will  meet  the  true  end  of  education  in 
training  the  children  of  the  land  to  be  not  only  good 
citizens,  but  also  symmetrically-developed  men  and 
women  in  an  intellectual  and  a  moral  as  well  as  a 
physical  sense. 

School  management  and  methods  of  instruction  are  to 
some  extent  interwoven  and  dependent,  and  the  teacher 
who  is  successful  in  one  is  usually  successful  in  tlie 
other,  because  the  same  principles  in  a  great  measure 
underlie  both,  and  the  same  jjcrsonal  qualities  charac- 
terize to  a  great  degree  the  faithful,  energetic  teaclier 

and  the  successful  disciplinarian. 

11 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

The  chief  topics  to  be  discussed  iiudor  the  subject  of 
school  management  are — 

1.  School  Requisites. 

2.  School  Ouganization. 

3.  School  Work. 

4.  School  Ethics. 

5.  School  Government, 

6.  The  Teacher. 


CHAPTER  I. 

School  Requisites. 

Previous  to  the  organization  of  the  schocl  there  is  a 
certain  amount  of  preparation  necessary  in  order  that 
tiie  school  work  may  be  well  done.  Among  the  requi- 
sites dcmandino;  attention  are  the  following: 

I.  School-Houses. 

II.  Arrangement  and  Size  of  the  Grounds. 
III.  School  Furniture. 
IV.  School  Hygiene. 
Y.  School  Grades. 
VI.  School  Aids. 

I.  School-Houses. 

One  of  the  first  things  to  be  considered  in  school 
management  is  the  school-house.  The  influence  exerted 
on  the  pupils,  on  the  teacher,  and  on  the  community  by 
either  a  good  or  a  poor  school-house  can  hardly  be  esti- 
mated. A  good  school-house,  properly  located,  beautified 
as  it  should  be,  and  made  comfortable,  j)leasant,  and  in- 
viting, ie  in  itself  a  teacher  for  good ;  while  a  neglected 
one,  the  reverse  of  all  tliis,  does  an  incalculable  amount 
of  harm  in  counteracting  efficient  teaching  and  in  mould- 
ing for  evil  the  character  of  a  whole  neighborhood. 

The  chief  points  to  be  considered  in  connection  with 
school-houses  are  the  following : 

2  13 


14  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

1.  The  Location. 

2.  The  Size  and  Proportions. 

3.  The  Architecture. 

4.  The  Internal  Arrangement. 

1.  The  Location. — The  proper  location  of  a  school- 
house  is  a  matter  of  much  importance.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  here,  in  a  great  measure,  is  moulded 
the  cliaracter  of  the  future  men  and  women  of  the 
country.  Here  the  tastes  are  cultivated  and  the  habits 
formed  which  are  to  mark  the  future  citizens.  Here 
not  only  the  intellectual,  but  also  the  moral  and  the 
physical,  nurture  are  to  be  given. 

Among  the  chief  considerations  which  should  deter- 
mine the  location  of  a  school-house  in  any  district  are 
tlie  following : 

1.  Healthfulness  of  the  Site. 

2.  Convenience  of  Access. 

3.  Quiet. 

4.  Beauty. 

1.  Healthfulness  of  the  Site. — It  is  evident  that  no 
school-house  should  be  located  where  pupils  are  placed 
in  danger  of  contracting  disease.  No  school-house, 
therefore,  should  be  built  near  a  SAvamp  or  near  stag- 
nant water,  where  malarial  or  miasmatic  vapors  may 
endanger  the  health  of  both  jDupils  and  teacher.  Nor 
sliould  a  school-house  in  a  town  or  a  city  l)e  so  located 
as  to  endanger  the  health  of  its  occupants  by  causing 
them  to  breathe  the  gases  and  effluvia  arising  from  im- 
properly drained  streets,  neighboring  stables,  or  leaky 
and  defective  sewers.  Every  precaution  should  be  taken 
to  select  tlie  most  healthful  spot  in  the  neighborhood, 


SCHOOL    KEQUISITES.  16 

tliat  the  pliysical  welfare  of  the  children  may  not  be 
jeoparded. 

A  sloping  hillside,  where  the  surface  drainage  is  good, 
is  an  excellent  location  for  a  school-house,  particularly 
if  the  grounds  can  be  so  arranged  as  to  have  the  house 
face  to  the  south  or  the  east.  If  such  a  site  can  be 
found,  with  a  briskly-flowing  brook  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill,  it  will  be  all  the  more  desirable. 

Expense  should  be  no  consideration.  The  most  health- 
ful location  is  not  too  good  nor  too  expensive  when  the 
physical  nurture  of  our  children  is  to  be  provided  for. 
The  school  law  of  Pennsylvania,  and  possibly  that  of 
other  States,  gives  to  School  Boards  the  power  to  select 
whatever  site  they  may  see  fit,  providing  always  that  a 
reasonable  sum  is  paid  to  the  landowner  for  the  land 
thus  appropriated. 

2.  Convenience  of  Access. — The  second  important 
consideration  in  the  location  of  a  school-house  is  con- 
venience of  access.  In  general,  the  school-house  should 
be  located  at  such  place  as  will  make  it  convenient 
for  the  greatest  number,  provided  a  healthful  loca- 
tion can  be  secured.  But  the  question  of  healthfulness 
should  be  the  first  to  claim  the  attention  of  those  having 
the  power  to  locate  school-buildings.  In  sparsely  pop- 
ulated districts  the  location  should  usually  be  near  the 
centre  of  the  district,  but  where  the  population  is  dense 
and  the  distance  to  be  traveled  not  so  great,  any  location 
may  be  selected  that  meets  the  requirements  of  health 
and  comfort.  In  the  location  of  houses  for  primary  pu- 
pils care  should  be  taken  that  the  building  be  so  placed 
that  as  few  as  possible  may  be  required  to  cross  railways, 
canals,  streams,  or  much-traveled  streets. 


16  SCHOOL    MAXAGEMEKT. 

3.  Quiet. — Few  appreciate  the  value  of  quiet  sur- 
roundings so  liighly  as  does  the  student.  School-houses 
should  be  so  located  as  to  afford  the  best  possible  oppor- 
tunity for  study.  The  lociition  should  be  such  that  no 
noise  or  outside  excitement  may  attract  the  attention  of 
the  pu})ils  or  divert  it  from  its  proper  object.  Scliool- 
houses  should  therefore  never  be  located  near  noisy  man- 
ufactories, railways,  railway -stations,  mills,  or  other  es- 
tablishments likely  to  interfere  with  study.  It  is  best 
also  that  the  school-house  be  placed  back  some  distance 
from  the  street,  that  the  noise  of  passing  vehicles  may 
not  distract  or  divert  the  attention  of  those  engaged  in 
study. 

4.  Beauty.  —  The  beauty  of  the  location,  though 
often  receiving  but  little  attention  from  school  officers, 
is  one  that  should  have  its  due  influence  in  the  selection 
of  a  site.  Beautiful  surroundings  have  much  to  do  in 
creating  a  love  for  the  beautiful.  A  school-house  so 
situated  that  the  children  are  brought  face  to  face  with 
the  beautiful  in  Nature,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides  with 
such  scenery  as  must  necessarily  make  them  love  the 
beautiful  from  the  very  association,  will  have  its  bene- 
ficial effects  not  only  on  the  discipline  and  order  of  the 
school,  but  also  in  the  formation  of  the  moral  character- 
of  the  pupils.  Children  coming  from  such  a  school  can 
not  fail  to  have  a  more  refined  taste  and  a  purer  moral 
character  than  those  schooled  amid  surroundings  which 
lack  every  essential  element  of  beauty.  The  teaching  of 
the  beauty  surrounding  us  is  unconscious,  but  the  lessons 
learned  are  none  the  less  pleasing  and  none  the  less  valu- 
able. Every  mountain-slope,  every  verdant  valley,  every 
winding  stream,  every  charming  landscape,  has  its  in 


SCHOOL   REQUISITES.  17 

fluence  in  forming  character.  Let  children,  then,  always 
be  surrounded  with  the  beautiful,  that  the  life  within 
may  be  made  to  grow  beautiful  in  harmony  with  the 
life  without. 

2.  The  Size  and  Proportions. — The  size  of  a  school 
building  should  of  course  depend  on  the  number  of  pu- 
pils to  be  accommodated.  In  general,  at  least  ten  square 
feet  of  floor-surface  should  be  allotted  to  each  pupil,  but 
fifteen  square  feet  would  be  better.  Thus,  a  school-room 
twenty  feet  by  twenty-four  might  be  made  to  accommo- 
date from  thirty-two  to  forty-eight  pupils;  one  of  twenty- 
four  feet  by  thirty,  from  forty-eight  to  seventy-two  pu- 
])ils.  The  ceiling  should  be  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet  in 
height,  according  to  the  size  of  the  room.  A  room  twenty 
feet  by  twenty-four,  and  ten  feet  high,  would  give  to 
forty  pupils  each  one  hundred  and  twenty  cubic  feet  of 
air-space,  while  one  twenty-four  feet  by  thirty,  and 
twelve  feet  high,  would  allow  each  of  sixty  pupils  one 
hundred  and  forty-four  cubic  feet  of  air-space.  A  ceiling 
more  than  fourteen  feet  in  height  is  a  disadvantage  rather 
than  otherwise,  as  it  makes  a  room  more  difficult  to  heat, 
with  no  special  advantage  gained  in  any  other  direction. 

The  proportions  here  indicated — twenty  feet  by  twenty- 
four,  twenty-four  feet  by  thirty,  and  thirty  feet  by  thirty- 
six — are  among  the  best,  the  width  being  to  the  length 
in  the  proportion  of  about  five  to  six. 

When  more  than  fifty  pupils  are  to  be  accommodated, 
a  recitation-room  should  be  attached  for  the  use  of  an 
assistant  teacher. 

3.  The  Architecture. — In   the  erection  of  a  school- 

2 


18  SCJIOOI.    MANAOEMK.NT, 

house  Utility,  beauty,  aud  comfort  uuist  be  oonibined.  It 
is  not  more  important  that  the  school-house  have  a  beau- 
tiful location  than  that  it  be  beautiful  itself  and  in  har- 
mony with  its  surroundings.  Too  little  attention  has 
been  given  lo  our  school  architecture  as  regards  both 
beauty  and  comfort. 

Neither  beauty  nor  comfort  necessarily  makes  the 
school-house  more  expensive.  Comfort  and  fitness  in  the 
plan  aud  construction  should  be  the  first  considerations, 
but  in  connection  with  these  beauty  also  should  be  taken 
into  account,  and  both  the  form  and  the  color  be  made 
to  harmonize  with  the  surroundings. 

Plans. — A  definite  plan  should  be  decided  upon  for 
the  school-house  before  the  proper  officers  begin  its  erec- 
tion. This  plan  can  in  general  be  best  prepai'ed  by  an 
architect  or  some  other  person  who  has  made  the  subject 
a  study.  When  once  the  plan  is  fully  adapted  to  the 
Avants  of  the  school,  care  should  be  taken  that  no  changes 
are  made  by  the  builders.  The  fee  paid  to  the  architect 
for  preparing  the  plan  for  a  suitable  building  Avill  be 
money  well  expended. 

Cost. — The  additional  cost  in  adapting  the  plan  of  a 
building  to  the  surrounding  landscape  is  a  matter  of 
small  moment  when  we  consider  the  attachment  which 
almost  every  child  has  for  the  school-house  in  which  he 
received  his  early  training.  The  beneficial  effect  exerted 
in  both  a  moral  aud  an  sesthetic  sense  is  of  vastly  greater 
importance  than  the  few  extra  dollars  expended  in 
making  the  school-house  a  pleasant  and  attractive  place 
and  a  source  of  pride  to  the  community. 

4.  Internal  Arrangements. — Closets. — Provision  should 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  19 

be  made  in  every  school-house  for  tlie  storage  of 
luiich-l)asket.s,  hats,  shawls,  etc.  during  school  hours. 
Couiniodious  closets  or  special  cloak-rooms — one  for  the 
boys  and  another  for  the  girls — should  be  provided, 
wherein  these  articles  may  be  kept.  These  rooms  or 
closets  should  always  open  into  the  school-room,  that  the 
teacher  may  have  the  pupils  in  sight,  and  thus  prevent 
scuffling  and  unnecessary  noise.  These  rooms  ought  to 
be  about  six  feet  by  eight  or  six  feet  by  ten,  with  shelves 
for  baskets  and  hooks  for  hats  and  clothing.  They  may 
consist  of  a  tier  of  boxes  about  ten  inches  square,  in- 
stead of  shelves.  Each  s])ace  and  each  hook  should  be 
numbered,  and  each  pupil  should  have  a  number  to 
correspond. 

Library  and  Apparatus  Space. — If  possible,  a  room 
should  be  provided  for  the  school  library  and  appa- 
ratus. Shelves  or  closets  at  least  should  be  put  in  con- 
venient places,  where  the  school  library  may  be  kept, 
the  apparatus  be  stored,  and  a  cabinet  of  minerals, 
grains,  grasses,  etc.  be  arranged  for  use.  Without  such 
provision  the  apparatus  is  likely  to  be  neglected  and  be- 
come damaged,  and  the  specimens  in  the  cabinet  scattered 
and  lost. 

Platform. — The  platform  may  extend  across  the  end 
of  the  room,  though  a  platform  half  as  long  as  the 
width  of  the  room  usually  is  sufficiently  large.  In 
height  it  ought  to  be  not  less  than  eight  inches  nor  more 
than  fifteen. 

Space  for  the  Blackboard. — Unless  slate  is  preferred, 
it  is  usually  quite  as  well  to  prepare  the  wall-sur- 
face at  the  ends  of  the  room  in  what  is  known  as 
"  hard  finish  "  by  the  use  of  calcined  plaster  or  cement, 


20  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

that  it  may  afterward  be  covered  with  a  coat  of  li<jiiid 
shvtinjr  or  a  mixture  of  alcohol,  shellac  varnish,  and 
lampblack.  This  space  should  be  about  five  feet  in 
licight,  and  extend  to  within  two  feet  of  the  floor.  A 
trough  should  be  placed  below  each  board  to  catch  the 
dust,  and  below  this  trough  should  be  placed  hooks  ou 
which  to  hang  pointers  and  rubbers. 

Arrangement  of  Seats. — Sufficient  space  for  recitation- 
benches  should  be  reserved  between  the  platform  and 
the  first  row  of  seats.  The  aisles  between  the  rows 
of  desks  should  be  sufficiently  wide  to  allow  the  pupils 
to  pass  back  and  forth  readily  without  disturbing  those 
occupied  in  study  at  the  desks.  A  small  aisle  should  be 
left  in  the  rear  of  the  back  row  of  seats  for  the  conve- 
nience of  both  teacher  and  pupils.  The  desks  shoukl  be 
arranged  so  as  to  face  the  platform,  and  those  for  the 
smaller  pupils  should  be  placed  nearest  the  teacher, 
leaving  the  larger  pupils  to  occupy  the  rear  of  the  room. 

Flues. — These  are  needed  both  for  ventilation  and 
for  carrying  off  the  smoke  and  the  gas  generated  by  the 
heating  apparatus.  They  should  be  so  placed  in  the 
school-room  as  not  to  mar  the  beauty  of  the  room,  and 
yet  effectually  introduce  pure  air  and  carry  off  the  im- 
pure as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  ventilating  flue  and  the 
smoke  flue  should  be  placed  side  by  side,  with  a  thin 
partition  between,  that  the  foul  air  may  thus  be  heated 
and  carried  off  through  the  chimney. 

II.  Arrangement  and  Size  of  the  Grounds. 

The  chief  points  to  be  considered  in  connection  with 
school-grounds  are  the  following : 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  21 

1.  Size. 

2.  Convenience  of  Arrangement. 

3.  Beauty. 

4.  Appurtenances. 

1.  Size  of  the  Grounds. — In  cities,  where  land  is  liigh- 
priced,  it  is  rarely  the  case  that  pupils  have  sufficient 
ground  for  either  play  or  exercise,  but  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts, where  the  cost  of  land  is  not  so  great,  certainly 
no  excuse  can  be  urged  for  being  penurious  in  the  matter 
of  providing  a  sufficiently  large  playground.  No  school- 
house  should  have  less  than  half  an  acre  of  ground  at- 
tached, but  it  would  be  much  better  if  twice  or  three 
times  this  quantity  could  be  allotted,  particularly  where 
there  are  several  grades  or  several  schools  in  the  same 
building. 

2.  Convenience  of  Ari'angement.  —  The  play-ground 
should  be  so  arranged  that  each  sex  may  have  a  pri- 
vate play-ground  in  the  rear  of  the  house,  where  each 
shall  be  free  from  the  intrusion  of  the  other  sex.  The 
l)lay-ground  in  front  of  the  house  should  be  common 
territory,  where  all  may  enjoy  themselves  under  the  eye 
of  the  teacher.  The  school  building  should  be  so  placed 
that  the  larger  portion  of  the  school-grounds  may  be  to 
the  rear  of  the  house.  The  ground  should  be  well 
drained  also,  that  it  may  be  as  dry  as  possible  at  all 
times,  and  the  walks  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  lead 
from  the  entrance  of  the  grounds  to  each  of  the  doors. 

3.  Beauty  of  the  Grounds. — Not  only  may  the  school- 
ground  be  used  for  exercise  and  play;  some  effi^rt  should 
be  made  to  render  it  beautiful  also  by  adorning  it 
with  shrul  bery,  trees,  and   flowers.     In  planting  trees 


22  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

tlioy  should  usually  be  arranged  in  groups,  not  in  roM's. 
Tlie  same  may  be  said  of  shrubbery.  Nothing  shows  a 
lack  of  taste  more  than  the  arrangement  of  shrubbery 
in  lines  along  the  paths  and  walks.  As  to  the  flower- 
beds, much  may  be  left  to  the  taste  of  the  teacher  and 
his  pupils.  Any  good  horticultural  newspaper  or  maga- 
zine or  floral  catalogue  will  give  more  explicit  directions 
than  it  is  possible  to  give  here. 

The  teacher  should  call  in  the  aid  of  his  pu{)ils  in  or- 
liamenting  his  school-grounds.  He  will  thus  not  only 
cultivate  their  love  for  the  beautiful,  but  also  gain  such 
a  hold  on  their  better  nature  as  to  make  his  discipline 
comparatively  easy.  Every  pupil  should  be  made  to  feel 
that  he  has  an  interest  in  preserving  the  beauty  of  the 
school-grounds,  and  that  he  has  a  right  at  all  times  to 
protect  the  shrubbery,  the  flowers,  and  other  objects  of 
beauty  from  injury. 

4.  Appurtenances. — Every  school-ground  should  of 
course  be  supplied  with  the  necessary  out-buildings. 
In  addition  to  these,  certain  pieces  of  apparatus  designed 
to  promote  the  physical  education  of  the  pupils  should 
be  furnished.  Among  the  most  prominent  of  these  are 
horizontal  bars,  ball-alleys,  swings,  croquet  sets,  lawn 
tennis,  and  footballs.  As  to  bats,  balls,  jumping-ropes, 
and  hoops,  the  pupils  will  furnish  these  for  themselves. 
A  set  of  bows  and  arrows  with  targets,  to  be  used  in  a 
private  part  of  the  grounds  where  all  danger  of  hurt  by 
accident  may  be  avoided,  would  also  prove  of  great 
benefit.  All  these  will  tend  to  make  the  school  at- 
tractive to  children,  while  they  at  the  same  time  will  do 
much  to  promote  the  j)h^sical  welfare  of  the  pupils.  A 
few  rustic  seats  placed  where  those  not  engaged  in  play 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  23 

may  becjonie  interested  observers  will  add  luiieli  to  the 
attractiveness  of  the  pkiy-gi-ounds. 

III.  School  Furniture  and  Apparatus. 

Each  school-house  should  be  fully  supplied  with  all 
the  furniture  necessary  to  make  the  school  a  pleasant 
place  and  the  teaching  effective. 

1.  Desks. — The  desks  should  be  provided  to  accom- 
modate not  more  than  two  pupils  each,  and  in  form  they 
should  be  so  adapted  to  the  shape  of  the  body  as  to 
make  them  as  comfortable  as  possible.  Hard- wood  desks 
are  preferable  to  home-made  pine  desks,  and  they  arc 
also  much  cheaper  when  service  is  considered.  The 
desks  should  be  graded  in  height  and  proportions  to 
accommodate  the  pupils  of  different  sizes.  The  seats  in 
connection  with  the  desks  should  be  stationary.  Loose 
chairs  for  pupils'  scats  are  not  well  adapted  to  school 
work.  Several  chairs  should  be  provided  for  the  accom- 
modation of  visitors;  also  a  suitable  desk  and  a  chair  for 
the  teacher. 

2.  Blackboard. — This  is  one  of  the  articles  of  school 
furniture  absolutely  essential  to  good  teaching  and  proper 
management.  A  blackboard  is  necessary  in  the  teaching 
of  every  branch,  and  frequently  it  may  be  made  a  great 
aid  in  management  by  having  some  of  the  pupils,  par- 
ticularly the  smaller  ones,  employ  a  portion  of  their 
time  in  drawing  on  it  while  others  are  busy  in  recitation. 

Size. — The  blackboard  should  not  be  less  than  four 
and  a  half  feet  high,  and  it  should  extend  so  low  that 
even  the  smallest  pupils  may  be  enabled  to  use  it.  In 
length  it  should  occupy  at  least  one  end  of  the  room,  but 
twice  this  quantity  of  board-surface  is  not  too  great. 


24  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

Holo  Made. — At  present  but  little  difficulty  is  experi- 
enced in  securing  good  blackboard  surface.  Liquid 
slating  is  the  best  material.  This  may  be  placed  directly 
ou  a  smooth  wall  or  board.  Slated  paper  also  may  be 
used.  Where  the  plastering  is  too  soft  for  other  surface 
the  slated  paper  is  particularly  useful.  Even  good 
heavy  hardware  paper,  or  muslin  put  smooth  on  the 
wall,  may  be  covered  with  slating  or  with  a  coat  of 
paint  having  sufficient  grit,  and  thus  a  good  surface 
be  secured. 

Col(y)\ — As  to  color,  there  is  room  for  choice,  but  green 
seems  least  tiresome  to  the  eye.  A  good  surface  can  be 
made  by  applying  two  or  three  coats  of  a  mixture  com- 
posed of  shellac,  turpentine,  and  lampblack,  with  just 
sufficient  alcohol  added  to  dissolve  the  shellac  and  enough 
lampblack  to  give  good  color.  This  black  surface  should 
then  be  covered  with  one  or  two  coats  of  green  liquid 
slating.  It  will  make  an  excellent  and  a  pleasing 
surface. 

3.  Erasers. — If  possible,  a  sufficient  number  of  erasers 
should  be  furnished  to  allow  one  to  each  pupil  at  the 
board.  These  erasers  may  be  made  of  bits  of  sheepskin, 
of  blocks  covered  with  brussels  carpet,  or  of  heavy  felt 
inserted  in  blocks  similar  to  the  Climax  Rubber.  Good 
erasers,  such  as  will  clean  the  board  without  throwing 
dust,  should  be  used. 

4.  Pointers. — A  number  of  soft-wood  pointers  should 
form  part  of  the  furniture.  When  teachers  and  pupils 
are  required  to  furnish  their  own  pointers  they  arc  likely 
to  use  any  stick  convenient  at  the  time,  and  possibly 
injure  the  board-surface  or  the  polish  on  the  maps. 
Soft-wood  pointers  with  smooth  ends  are  the  best,  be- 


SCHOOL   KEQUISITES.  25 

cause  they  are  less  likely  to  injure  the  surface  of  either 
blackboards  or  maps. 

5.  Reading -Charts. — A  set  of  reading-charts  for  the 
purpose  of  teaching  primary  reading  should  constitute  a 
part  of  the  school  furniture.  These  need  not  be  elab- 
orate or  expensive,  but  simply  such  as  will  add  variety 
and  interest  to  the  textbook  matter. 

6.  Numeral  Frame. — No  primary  or  ungraded  schocl 
should  be  without  a  numeral  frame.  Not  only  counting, 
but  also  all  the  fundamental  rules,  may  be  taught  con- 
cretely by  the  aid  of  this  important  little  piece  of 
furniture. 

The  chief  remaining  apparatus  for  illustrating  mathe- 
matical work  are  the  following : 

A  set  of  Weights  and  Measures,  to  familiarize  the  pu- 
pils with  the  practical  part  of  Denominate  Numbers. 

A  set  of  Metric  Weights  and  Measures,  to  illustrate  the 
Metric  System  and  compare  its  various  units  with  the 
system  now  in  use. 

A  set  of  Geometric  Forms,  including  cubes,  cubical 
blocks,  cones,  cylinders,  spheres,  prisms,  etc. 

7.  Geographicai  Apparatus. — For  the  purpose  of  teach- 
ing geography  properly  Outline  Maps,  Globes,  and 
Gcoffrapkical  Boards  seem  to  be  the  most  important. 

Outline  Maps  are  necessary  for  teaching  the  contour 
and  comparative  size  of  the  various  countries,  as  well  as 
for  teaching  local  geography.  A  State,  and,  if  passible, 
a  county,  map  should  form  part  of  every  set.  Maps 
should  remain  open  as  much  as  possible,  that  pupils  may 
become  familiar  with  the  outlines  of  countries,  location 
of  capes,  etc.  by  their  constant  presence. 

A   Globe  is  necessary  in   teaching    the  shape  of  the 


2G  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

earth,  its  motions,  and  the  comparative  size,  as  well  as 
the  location,  of  countries,  etc.  oi\  its  surface. 

A  Geographical  Board,  with  a  rim  around  the  edge, 
and  containing  on  its  surface  sand,  chiy,  water,  and  rocks, 
may  be  used  to  illustrate  the  natural  divisions  of  land 
and  water.  A  board  of  two  or  three  feet  square  is  suf- 
ficiently large.  Pupils  with  a  board  of  this  kind  will 
spend  many  a  pleasant  hour  in  illustrating  geographical 
facts. 

8.  Cabinets. — These  can  probably  be  best  secured  by 
the  teacher.  Pupils,  when  they  find  the  teacher  inter- 
ested, will  gladly  assist  in  collecting  minerals,  plants, 
leaves,  grains,  grasses,  and  other  botanical,  geological,  or 
zoological  specimens  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  cab- 
inet. The  interest  Avhich  may  be  awakened  on  the  part 
of  pupils,  and  the  culture  of  the  observing  powers  thus 
secured,  are  of  the  greatest  importance. 

9.  Dictionary. — An  unabridged  Dictionary  is  one  of 
the  important  articles  of  school  apparatus.  The  smaller 
dictionaries  are  so  limited  in  their  definitions,  and  so  un- 
satisfactory, that  they  answer  only  partially  the  end  for 
which  they  are  intended.  It  is  best,  therefore,  to  have 
an  unabridged,  or  at  least  what  is  known  as  a  compre- 
hensive, dictionary  for  school  use. 

How  to  Secure  Apparatus. — It  is  unquestionably  the 
duty  of  Directors  or  School  Trustees  to  provide  from 
the  public  funds  all  the  necessary  furniture  and  appa- 
ratus for  each  school.  In  few  instances,  however,  is  it 
likely  these  officers  will  furnish  all  the  apparatus  here 
mentioned.  In  the  event  of  their  failure  in  this  respect, 
how  may  it  be  secured? 


SCHOOL,    REQUISITES.  27 

1.  A  Demand  slioiild  be  Created. — The  judicious  teachot 
by  proper  ellort  may  do  much  toward  awakening  not 
only  his  school,  but  also  the  community,  to  the  necessity 
of  Jiaving  a  better  supply  of  apparatus.  He  can  do  this 
partly  by  showing  what  may  be  done  with  simple  appa- 
ratus of  his  own  construction.  An  address  to  the  citizens 
of  the  district,  showing  how  much  better  the  work  of 
teaching  may  be  done  with  ap])aratus  than  without,  will 
do  much  to  convince  his  patrons. 

2.  By  Entertainments. — An  entertainment  given  by  the 
school  children  will  usually  secure  the  attendance  of 
both  parents  and  friends;  and  when  it  is  known  that  the 
proceeds  are  to  be  devoted  to  the  purchase  of  apparatus, 
the  patrons  will  attend  all  the  more  willingly.  This  en- 
tertainment may  consist  of  a  contest  in  Spelling,  Geog- 
raphy, History,  or  some  other  branch  of  study,  or  it  may 
consist  of  readings,  declamations,  music,  etc.,  judiciously 
intermingled.  Now  and  then  also  a  lecturer  may  be  se- 
cured who  is  willing  to  deliver  an  address  for  the  benefit 
of  the  apparatus  fund. 

3.  By  Subscription. — Another  plan  for  securing  funds 
for  the  purchase  of  apparatus  is  by  subscri])tion.  Let 
the  subscription-list  be  headed  by  a  few  of  the  most  lib- 
eral citizens.  This,  accompanied  by  a  personal  appeal  to 
every  citizen  of  the  district,  will  rarely  fail  in  securing 
an  amount  sufficient  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  collection 
of  apparatus,  or  in  adding  to  that  already  in  possession 
of  the  school. 

IV.  School  Hygiene. 

Nothing  in  connection  with  school  management  can 
be  of  greater  importance  than  the  preservation  of  tli« 


28  SCHOOL   MANAGKMENT 

health  of  both  teacher  and  })ui)ils.  Kot  only  a  know- 
ledge of  the  laws  for  preserving  health,  but  also  a  strict 
compliance  with  these  laws,  is  necessary.  School  hygiene 
has  special  reference  to  the  following  in  connection  with 
the  school-house  and  the  pupils: 

1.  Lighting. 

2.  Heating. 

3.  Ventilation. 

4.  Condition  of  Floor  and  Walls. 

5.  Posture. 

6.  Exercise. 

7.  Play. 

8.  Hygienic  Habits  of  Pupils. 

1.  Lighting. — Light  is  an  essential  to  health.  Dark 
rooms  are  never  so  healthful  as  those  properly  lighted. 
Well-lighted  rooms  are  also  more  pleasant  and  inviting 
than  those  from  which  the  light  is  to  any  great  extent 
excluded.  Many  diseases  of  the  eye  with  which  they 
who  work  in-doors  are  often  afflicted  might  be  avoided 
if  the  laws  for  the  preservation  of  sight  were  properly 
understood  and  observed. 

The  Windows  of  every  school  building  should  be  high, 
rather  than  broad  and  low.  The  nearer  to  the  ceiling 
the  light  enters  the  room,  the  more  nearly  will  Nature  be 
imitated  in  giving  us  sunlight  from  above.  The  win- 
dows should  also  be  placed  only  on  the  sides  of  the  room, 
and  never  in  such  a  position  that  the  light  will  strike 
either  the  teachers  or  the  pupils  in  the  face. 

Curtains  and  Shutters  should  not  be  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  shutting  out  the  light  or  the  sunshine,  but 
rather  for  modifying  it  and  preventing  injury  to  the  eyes 


SCHOOL   REQUISITES.  2 'J 

by  its  glare.  When  curtains  arc  placed  at  school-room 
windows,  care  should  be  taken  that  they  be  made  of 
such  material  as  will  intercept  as  little  of  the  light  as 
])')ssible. 

Boolcs  with  Small  Type  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be 
avoided.  One  of  the  evils  with  which  we  have  to  con- 
tend in  this  age  of  cheap  books  is  the  small  type  in 
which  so  many  are  printed.  Narrow  pages  and  good- 
sized  type  with  ample  light  would  do  much  to  preserve 
the  eyesight  of  our  children. 

2.  Heating. — The  temperature  of  tlie  school-room 
should  be  such  that  every  occupant  is  comfortably  warm 
whatever  part  of  the  room  he  may  occiipy.  With  a 
stove  in  the  centre  of  the  room  this  is  almost  impossible. 
No  more  defective  plan  of  heating  a  school-room  could 
be  devised  than  this.  The  great  difficulty,  as  every  in- 
telligent teacher  knows,  is  tiiat  while  those  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  this  central  stove  are  frequently  too 
warm,  those  sitting  nearer  the  walls  are  too  cold ;  and 
thus,  in  either  case,  the  foundation  for  disease  is  laid. 

Steam-heating  is  not  only  the  most  comfortable,  but 
also  probably  the  most  healthful,  for  the  reason  that  the 
air  is  not  scorched  and  robbed  of  its  oxygen  by  this 
method.  For  a  large  school  building  wuth  a  number  of 
departments  or  rooms  it  is  also  economical.  In  small 
school  buildings  the  expense  of  steam  apparatus  would 
be  proportionately  too  great. 

An  Open  Fireplace  is  one  of  the  most  healthful  and 
pleasant  ways  of  heating  where  wood  is  plentiful,  and 
the  draft  created  is  also  beneficial  in  connection  with  the 
proper  ventilation  of  the  room. 


30  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Ventilating  Stoves,  constructed  on  the  plan  of  the  open 
fireplace,  are  equally  eftective.  Either  plan  requires  a 
large  and  constant  supply  of  fresh  air;  and  thus,  while 
the  room  is  kept  warm,  the  air  is  also  comparatively 
pure. 

Hot-air  Furnaces  may  be  used  in  the  heating  of 
school-houses  where  steam-heating  is  found  to  be  too  ex- 
pensive. The  furnaces  should  be  located  in  the  cellar, 
and  the  radiating  surface  be  constantly  supplied  with  a 
current  of  fresh  air  from  without.  Running  side  l)y  side 
with  the  heat  flues  should  be  ventilating  flues,  to  carry 
off  the  impure  air  of  the  room ;  and  these  should  be 
open  at  or  near  the  floor,  that  the  carbonic  acid  gas  float- 
ing near  the  bottom  of  the  room  may  be  drawn  in, 
heated,  and  carried  up  the  flue.  The  serious  objection 
to  hot-air  furnaces  is,  that  the  air  becomes  parched  and 
too  dry,  thus  often  causing  very  serious  diseases  of  the 
throat. 

Stoves  in  most  cases,  particularly  in  rural  districts,  are 
the  usual  means  by  which  the  rooms  are  heated.  If 
possible,  these  should  be  placed  in  the  cellar  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  hot-air  furnace ;  but  if  this  is  not  possible, 
they  should  be  placed  near  the  side  or  the  end  of  the 
room,  and  siiould  be  encased  wdth  sheet  iron  or  some 
similar  material,  so  as  to  distribute  the  heat  gradually. 
Two  small  stoves  in  opposite  corners  of  the  room  prove 
nmch  more  effective  than  one  large  one  placed  either  in 
the  centre  or  at  the  side  of  the  room.  If  the  stove  be 
encased,  a  flue  conveying  fresh  air  from  the  outside  and 
along  under  the  floor  may  be  made  to  open  directly 
under  the  stove,  thus  supplying  not  only  heated  air,  but 
also  pure  air. 


SCUOOL   REQUISITES.  31 

3.  Ventilation. — Good  school  work  needs  pure  blood, 
and  jmre  blood  needs  pure  air.  The  wonder  is,  not  that 
we  do  so  little  in  our  schools,  but  rather  that  we  do  so 
much  in  an  atmosphere  so  deficient  in  the  essential  ele- 
ments of  animal  life,  and  so  loaded  with  poisons  and 
effluvia.  School-houses  must  be  well  ventilated  in  order 
to  have  pupils  do  good  work.  A  few  hints  only  can  be 
given  here  on  methods  of  ventilation. 

Heat  Flues. — Under  these  may  be  included  open  fire- 
l)laees,  ventilating  stoves,  and  similar  contrivances,  by 
which  the  lower  stratum  of  air  in  the  room  is  drawn  di- 
rectly into  the  fire  and  made  to  pass  up  the  chimney. 
In  this  last  may  be  included  also  the  ventilating  flue 
built  in  connection  with  the  smoke  flue,  as  previously 
suggested.  The  separating  partition  between  these  flues 
should  be  of  sheet  iron,  so  that  sufficient  heat  may  pass 
through  to  rarefy  the  impure  air  and  carry  it  out  at  the 
top  of  the  building. 

Window  Ventilation. — When  not  overcrowded,  school- 
rooms may  be  effectually  ventilated  by  placing  a  close- 
fittinp;  board  of  five  or  six  inches  in  width  under  the 
lower  .sash  of  each  window.  In  this  manner  a  flue  is 
made  by  the  overlapping  of  the  upper  and  the  lower 
sash,  and  a  constant  stream  of  fresh  air  is  admitted,  which 
comes  in  at  such  a  part  of  the  room  as  to  become  heated 
])efore  reaching  the  occupants.  This  plan  may  be  used 
in  even  the  severest  weather. 

Outside  Flues. — The  plan  of  securing  fresh  air  by  the 
use  of  an  outside  flue  is  similar  in  principle  to  the 
method  of  window  ventilation  advised.  The  outside 
flue  is  simply  a  box-flue  or  pipe  open  at  the  lower  end, 
and  communicating  at  the  upper  end  with  the  school- 


32  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

room  at  a  pciint  near  the  ceiliug.  The  heated  air  of  the 
room  will  not  esGipe  through  this  pipe,  because  it  will 
not  descend ;  cold  fresh  air  will  flow  through  the  tube 
into  the  room,  and,  meeting  the  warm  air  of  the  room, 
will  also  become  heated.  ISTo  possible  draft  can  be  cre- 
ated. This  outside  flue  may  be  from  six  to  ten  feet  or 
more  in  length,  and  may  run  up  by  the  side  of  the  win- 
dow-frame, or  it  may  be  so  built  in  the  wall  as  not  to 
mar  the  beauty  of  the  building.  A  wire  screen  should 
be  placed  over  the  outside  opening,  so  as  to  prevent 
leaves,  etc.  from  entering. 

Pipe  Ventilators. — These  consist  of  ventilating  pipes 
running  close  by  the  side  of  the  stovepipe,  and  opening 
within  a  few  inches  of  the  floor  close  by  the  stove.  The 
air  in  the  pipe  becomes  heated,  a  draft  is  created,  the  im- 
pure air  near  the  floor  is  drawn  into  the  ventilating  pipe 
and  carried  near  to  the  point  where  the  stovepipe  enters 
the  chimney ;  here  the  ventilating  pipe  enters  the  stove- 
pipe, and  the  impure  air  joins  the  smoke  in  its  ascent  to 
the  chimney-top. 

Door  Ventilation. — In  school-houses  consisting:  of  sev- 
eral  rooms  the  omission  of  carpet-strips  under  the  doors 
serves  a  good  purpose  in  permitting  the  heavy  impure 
air  to  flow  out.  Opening  the  door  for  a  few  seconds 
occasionally  will  do  much  toward  purifying  the  air  in 
the  school-room.  In  no  case,  however,  should  the  door 
be  left  open  long  enough  to  make  any  one  uncomfortable. 
It  is  better  to  open  the  door  frequently  for  a  moment  at 
a  time  than  open  it  for  a  longer  time  but  at  greater 
intervals. 

During  pleasant  weather  both  windows  and  doors 
may  be  left  open  much  of  the  time.     When  the  room  is 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  33 

ventilated  in  mild  weather,  it  is  best  to  raise  the  lower 
sash  and  lower  the  upper  at  the  same  time,  that  the 
danger  of  drafts  may  as  much  as  possible  be  obviated. 
Reflectors. — Where  the  top  of  the  window-frame  is 
gquare  a  reflector  may  be  attached  in  such  a  way  as  to 
tiirow  the  air  toward  the  ceiling  as  it  enters.  The  only 
objection  to  this  plan  is  that  the  reflector  will  to  some 
extent  interfere  with  the  light. 

4.  Condition  of  the  Floor  and  Walls. — So  far  as  clean- 
liness concerns  the  school-room,  it  has  to  do  mostly  with 
the  condition  of  the  floor,  the  walls,  and  the  desks. 

Tlie  Floor. — There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  the 
floor  of  the  school-room  should  not  be  kept  as  clean  as 
that  of  one's  own  home,  yet  few  school-room  floors  re- 
ceive a  thorough  cleansing  more  than  once  a  term.  No 
good  housewife  would  permit  forty  or  fifty  little  folks 
to  run  over  her  kitchen  floor  six  hours  a  day  for  a  single 
vreck  ■without  insisting  upon  giving  that  floor  a  thorough 
cleansing;  and  yet  Ave  permit  these  same  children  to  oc- 
cupy the  school-room  in  a  similar  manner  for  sometimes 
three  months  or  more,  and  are  satisfied  with  a  single 
sweeping  a  day.  Mud  from  the  shoes,  excretions  from 
the  body,  dust  from  the  streets,  and  other  filth  are  per- 
mitted to  accumulate  on  the  floor,  only  to  be  stirred  up 
by  each  moving  class,  thrown  into  the  air,  and  breathed 
into  the  lungs  of  both  teacher  and  pupils. 

The  bits  of  paper,  nut-shells,  apple-parings,  etc.  which 
so  often  vex  and  worry  the  teacher  are  not  half  so  detri- 
mental to  health  nor  half  so  objectionable  as  this  filth 
which  is  permitted  to  accumulate  from  day  to  day. 

The  Walls. — What  has  been  said  of  the  floor  is  equally 

3 


34  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

true  of  the  walls  of  the  school-room.  In  many  cases  the 
dust  is  allowed  to  accumulate  dnring  a  wiiole  term,  and 
in  some  eases  for  a  much  greater  length  of  time.  Here, 
too,  the  germs  of  disease  may  accumulate,  only  to  be  dis- 
seminated as  the  breezes  of  spring  and  summer  are  per- 
mitted to  enter  the  room  and  disturb  them.  To  5ay 
nothing  of  the  lack  of  neatness,  this  filth  may  in  time 
become  the  source  of  sickness.  A  good  teacher  will  see 
to  it  that  the  walls  of  the  school-room  are  kept  clean. 

The  Desks  also  should  be  ke})t  as  free  from  dust  as 
possible.  Too  often  the  sweeping  is  done  in  such  a 
manner  as  simply  to  shift  a  large  part  of  the  dust  from 
the  floor  to  the  walls  and  the  school  furniture,  where  it 
is  allowed  to  remain.  Pupils  should  be  trained  to  take 
pride  in  the  condition  of  their  desks  and  the  surround- 
ing furniture.  A  word  of  commendation  now  and  then 
to  those  deserving  it  for  keeping  their  desks  neat  and  in 
good  order  will  do  much  toward  securing  both  clean  fur- 
niture and  good  discipline. 

5.  Posture  of  Pupils. — Whether  sitting  or  standing, 
the  posture  of  the  pupil  should  be  one  of  ease  and 
grace.  In  general  a  graceful  posture  is  easy,  and  an 
easy  one  is  graceful  and  healthful.  An  erect  posture, 
with  the  chest  well  forward  and  the  shoulders  back,  is 
the  most  conducive  to  health.  Under  all  circumstances 
fitting  in  a  stooping  posture  over  the  desk  should  be 
avoided.  In  this  position  the  chest  becomes  contracted 
and  the  lungs  cramped,  so  that  they  are  incapable  of  per- 
forming their  work  of  purifying  the  blood,  and  the  body 
thus  becomes  enfeebled  and  diseased. 

Comfortable  Scats,  of  such  a  height  that  the  feet  of  the 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  3b 

children  may  rest  comfortably  and  firmly  on  the  floor, 
are  necessary.  The  backs  of  these  scats  should  be  curved, 
so  as  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  shape  of  the  body  and 
give  support  at  all  points.  The  seats  should  also  be  a 
little  higher  in  front  than  at  the  rear,  in  order  to  support 
the  legs  and  prevent  slipping  forward. 

The  Height  of  the  Desks  should  be  made  to  conform  to 
the  varying  heights  of  the  different  pupils.  With  desks 
too  high  incalculable  damage  may  be  done  to  the  child  in 
causing  such  a  curvature  of  the  spine  as  to  raise  one 
shoulder  higher  than  the  other,  and  thus  produce  a 
lifelong  deformity.  Low  desks  are  equally  objection- 
able, because  the  pupil  is  apt  to  lean  forward  and  assume 
an  injurious  stooping  posture. 

6.  Exercise. — Exercise  is  necessary  to  health.  With- 
out exercise  the  body  becomes  enfeebled  and  sickly,  the 
various  physical  organs  perform  their  functions  imper- 
fectly, the  vital  forces  are  diminished,  and  at  last  disease 
lays  hold  on  the  organization  and  death  ends  the  career 
of  the  child. 

Exercise  is  necessary  to  study.  A  sound  mind  needs 
a  sound  body.  The  mind  is  to  a  great  extent  influenced 
by  the  bodily  health.  ^A  weak  or  enfeebled  body  is  rarely 
accompanied  by  a  strong  mind.  But  exercise  is  neces- 
sary to  strength  and  soundness  of  body,  and  therefore 
necessary  to  strength  and  soundness  of  mind. 

Calisthenic  Exercises. — For  in-door  exercises  probably 
nothing  is  of  more  value  than  calisthenics,  with  or 
without  music,  but  music  should  accompany  the  exer- 
cise whenever  possible.  For  beginners  these  exercises 
should  be  very  simple,  and  of  such  a  character  that  all 


36  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

the  cliiklren  can  readily  follow  the  lead  of  the  teacher, 
Foi   older  pupils  they  may  be  more  complicated. 

The  value  of  these  exercises  is  very  great.  They  can 
Ije  called  into  use  at  any  time  to  wake  up  the  school. 
The  movements,  all  being  made  in  exact  time,  train  to 
])romptness,  while  they  also  develop  grace  of  body  and 
motion.  They  are  interesting,  and  therefore  they  may 
be  made  to  take  the  j>lace  of  play.  They  promote  har- 
mony of  action,  and  thus  train  pupils  to  act  in  concert  in 
the  performance  of  other  duties. 

Gymnastic  Exercises  also  are  useful  in  promoting 
health.  These  may  be  regulated,  as  in  the  case  of  a 
march  or  a  drill,  or  they  may  be  unregulated,  allowing 
each  to  follow  the  inclination  of  his  own  will.  In  either 
case  they  will  prove  of  much  benefit  to  the  pupils  if 
conducted  in  such  a  way  as  to  call  into  play  as  many 
muscles  of  the  body  as  possible. 

The  Place  for  Exercising. — As  to  the  proper  place  for 
exercising,  little  need  be  said.  All  exercise  should  be 
taken  in  the  open  air  when  possible.  When  the  weather 
is  such  that  exercise  must  be  taken  in-doors,  calisthenics 
or  light  gymnastics  may  be  used,  but  pure  air  should  be 
admitted  freely  through  the  open  windows  while  the  ex- 
ercise continues,  unless  the  cold  be  too  severe. 

7.  Play. — Play  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  healthful 
cf  all  exercise.  It  is  the  natural  exercise  for  children. 
'I'hey  cannot  help  playing.  No  other  form  of  exercise 
can  be  profitably  substituted  for  it.  Richter  says:  "Play 
is,  in  the  first  place,  the  working  off  at  once  of  the 
overflow  of  both  mental  and  physical  powers."  The 
play  is  in  the  child,  and  it  serves  the  valuable  purpose 


SCHOOL   REQUISITES.  37 

of  exercise  and  recreation  at  once,  while  it  strengthens 
anil  develops  the  i)hysical  powers  and  kee2)s  them  healthy. 
To  the  student  j)lay  is  what  quiet  and  rest  are  to  one 
wearied  by  the  performance  of  manual  labor. 

The  Place  for  Play. — In  pleasant  weather  all  plays 
should  be  carried  on  in  the  open  air.  This  not  only  be- 
cause there  is  more  room,  but  because  it  if*  much  more 
healthful.  Wherever  possible  the  school-house  should 
have  a  dry  cellar  or  a  basement  story,  where  pupils  may 
enjoy  their  sport  when  the  weather  prevents  their  play- 
ing out  of  doors.  Should  such  a  place  not  be  provided, 
the  next  best  arrangement  is  to  allow  jmpils  to  play  in 
the  school-room,  but  in  every  such  case  the  teacher 
should  select  the  play.  The  play  should  be  such  as  will 
not  cause  the  furniture  to  be  injured  or  raise  the  dust 
from  the  floor.  A  pleasant  in-door  play,  in  which  both 
boys  and  girls  may  engage,  is  that  of  tossing  bags  of 
beans  or  corn  from  one  to  another.  These  bags  should 
be  made  to  contain  about  a  quart.  There  is  no  possible 
danger  of  doing  any  harm  to  the  furniture  or  the  walls 
should  they  happen  to  strike  either. 

The  Time  for  Play. — The  proper  times  for  play  are 
usually  the  recesses  or  intermissions.  How  many  re- 
cesses a  day  the  pupils  should  have,  and  how  long  these 
periods  should  continue,  must  be  left  somewhat  to  the 
judgment  of  the  individual  teacher.  Two  recesses  each 
half  day,  with  at  least  an  hour's  intermission  at  noon,  is 
not  too  much  play-time  for  the  smaller  pupils.  For  the 
older  pupils  probably  one  recess  each  iuilf  day  in  ad- 
dition to  the  noon  intermission  Avould  be  sufficient.  Now 
and  then  a  half  or  a  whole  holiday,  with  a  short  excur- 
sion or  a  picnic,  wouli  be  of  great  benefit.    The  tendency 


38  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

among  all  clnsscs  of  schools,  tlic  Kindergarten  excepted, 
is  to  do  too  much  work  and  have  too  little  recreation, 
and  the  result  is  most  unsatisfactory. 

Character  of  the  Play. — The  faithful  teacher  will  give 
some  attention  to  his  pupils  while  on  the  play-ground  as 
well  as  when  in  the  school-room.  The  boys  will  natur- 
ally choose  the  rougher  plays,  while  the  tendency  among 
the  girls  will  be  to  select  those  of  a  more  quiet  character. 
Both  extremes  should  be  avoided.  Any  plays  among 
boys  in  which  they  are  likely  to  do  one  another  personal 
injury,  or  plays  which  will  train  them  to  become  rude 
and  rough,  should  be  prohibited;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  girls  should  be  encouraged  to  engage  in  those  plays 
which  will  give  them  physical  vigor  and  endurance. 
The  teacher  who  advises  his  girls  not  to  engage  in  such 
plays  as  Avill  give  them  healthful  physical  development, 
and  who  cautions  them  continually  to  be  dignified  and 
observe  the  laws  of  decorum  instead,  commits  a  crime 
for  which  his  ignorance  is  no  excuse. 

The  Teacher's  Influence  in  Play. — If  the  teacher  be  wise 
in  his  supervision  of  the  children's  sports,  he  will  exert 
a  powerful  influence  in  the  formation  of  character.  A 
kind  word  of  praise  now  and  then  will  cause  each  par- 
ticipant in  the  play  to  put  forth  extra  exertions  in  order 
to  win  the  approbation  of  the  teacher ;  and  the  teacher, 
on  the  other  hand,  will  find  his  discipline  a  much  less 
difficult  matter  if  his  pupils  feel  that  they  really  have 
his  sympathy  in  their  plays. 

Should  the  Teacher  engage  in  Play? — Why  not?  If 
his  joining  in  the  play  will  help  to  make  it  interesting, 
there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  he  should  not  help 
his  pupils  in  their  sports.    The  p'ay-ground  is  an  excel- 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  39 

lent  place  for  the  study  of  character.  Of  course  the 
teacher  should  not  permit  himself  to  be  drawn  into  any 
disputes  with  his  pupils.  Under  no  circumstances  should 
he  forget  that  when  off  the  ])lay-ground  he  is  the  teacher 
and  his  playmates  the  pupils.  If,  however,  the  teacher 
have  not  perfect  control  of  his  pupils  in  the  school- 
room, it  would  likely  be  unwise  for  him  to  make  him- 
self one  of  the  participants  in  a  game  where  evil- 
disposed  pupils  might  be  inclined  to  degrade  him  or 
take  revenge.  Should  the  teacher  engage  in  play,  it 
would  not  be  wise  for  him  to  reprove  or  punish  while 
on  the  play-ground.  His  example  should  be  such  as  to 
command  the  highest  respect  of  his  pupils.  Should 
anything  improper  occur,  the  reproof  had  better  be  ad- 
ministered privately  after  the  excitement  of  the  game  is 
forgotten. 

8.  Hygienic  Habits  of  Pupils. — Attention  must  be 
given  to  the  personal  habits  of  pupils.  Much  of  the 
impurity  of  atmosphere  in  our  school-rooms  is  caused 
by  improper  ventilation,  but  much  arises  also  from  the 
lack  of  personal  cleanliness  on  the  part  of  our  school 
children.  Some  of  this  negligence  is  due  to  ignorance 
of  hygienic  laws,  and  much  of  it  to  the  carelessness  of 
both  parents  and  children.  The  special  hygienic  fea- 
tures to  which  attention  must  be  given  are — 

1.  Cleanliness  of  Person. 

2.  Cleanliness  of  Clothing. 

3.  Correction  of  Offensive  Personal  Habits. 

4.  Supply  of  Food. 

5.  Abundance  of  Sleep. 

6.  Cheerfulness  of  Disposition. 


40  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

1 .  Cleanliness  of  Person. — A  Avashbowl  and  a  uumber 
of  towels  arc  among  the  essentials  of  school-room  equi]>- 
nients.  The  teacher  should  see  to  it  that  his  pupils  have 
their  teeth  carefully  brushed,  their  hair  neatly  combed, 
and  their  hands  and  faces  washed  clean  before  they  begin 
the  day's  work.  Not  only  this :  he  should  insist  that  the 
hands  and  faces  be  kept  clean  and  the  hair  kept  neatly 
combed.  If  he  could  induce  the  children  to  have  their 
shoes  and  boots  polished  also,  himself  setting  the  example, 
lie  would  be  doin":  a  arood  work.  But  more  than  this:  he 
should  explain  to  them  the  importance  of  bathing  fre- 
quently, not  only  during  the  summer,  but  ali^t)  during 
the  winter.  Soa])  and  water  are  friends  to  civilization, 
and  few  men  appreciate  so  fully  the  necessity  for  the  use 
of  both  as  does  the  teacher  of  a  district  school.  Pupils 
should  be  taught  that  bathing  is  necessary  to  health  and 
physical  vigor,  and  they  should  be  advised  to  clean.se  the 
skin  frequently  also  as  a  preventive  of  disease. 

2.  Cleanliness  of  Clothing. — But  little  less  important  is 
the  cleanliness  of  one's  clothing.  A  frequent  change  of 
underclothing  should  be  advised,  that  the  excretions  of 
the  body  may  not  be  carried  around  for  a  week  or  more. 
Pupils  should  also  be  requested  to  come  to  school  with 
their  clothing  brushed.  They  should  be  made  to  under- 
stand that  all  wraps,  shawls,  comforters,  scarfs,  etc.  should 
be  put  aside  when  in  the  school-room,  that  they  may  serve 
the  proper  purpose  when  worn  out  of  doors. 

3.  Correction  of  Offensive  Personal  Habits. — Care  should 
be  taken  by  the  teacher  to  correct  improper  and  offensive 
personal  habits  on  the  part  of  his  pupils.  Spitting  on 
the  floor  or  the  stove  should  be  condemned  publicly, 
and  it  would  be  in  place  to  suggest  that  no  one  ought  to 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  41 

he  without  a  pocket-handkerchief,  nor  ought  he  fail  to 
uric  it  wlien  necessary.  Offensiveness  to  one's  associates 
demands  this,  to  say  nothing  of  personal  cleanliness. 
Picking  the  teeth  in  company  or  in  class  ought  to  l)e 
i-ebuked,  at  least  in  private,  and  any  other  person;jl 
habits  that  offend  should  receive  similar  treatment. 

4.  The  Supply  of  Food. — The  teacher  can  do  little  here 
except  to  recommend  a  proper  diet.  Food  of  proper  qual- 
ity should  be  supplied  and  in  sufficient  quantity,  but  with 
this  the  teacher  has  notiiing  to  do.  He  can,  however,  ad- 
vise his  pupils  as  to  the  hygiene  of  eating  so  far  as  thor- 
ough mastication  or  too  rapid  eating  is  concerned.  He 
ought  also  to  break  up  the  bad  school  habit  of  lunch- 
ing at  every  recess,  showing  pupils  the  necessity  of  taking 
meals  at  regular  times. 

5.  Abundance  of  Sleep. — Sound  sleep  and  plenty  of  it 
is  essential  to  hard  study.  Sleep  is  the  time  for  repair. 
The  teacher  should  im})ress  on  the  minds  of  his  pupils 
the  importance  of  regularity  of  habit  in  the  matter  of 
sleep.  Seven  or  eight  hours  is  not  too  long  a  period  of 
sleep  for  those  who  perform  active  mental  labor,  but  the 
hour  of  retiring  and  of  rising  should  be  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible the  same  all  the  year  round.  It  is  not  the  "early 
to  bed  and  early  to  rise"  so  much  as  it  is- the  regularity 
which  "makes  man  healthy,  wealthy,  and  wise." 

6.  Cheerfulness  of  Disposition. — Cheerfulness  is  con- 
:lucive  to  health.  The  cheerful  teacher's  presence  13 
worth  more  than  the  most  learned  and  logical  doctrines 
of  the  man  who  relies  on  his  grimness  and  dignity  to 
control  his  school.  Of  all  places  in  the  world,  home 
and  school  should  be  made  the  most  cheerful.  The 
teacher  who  is  cheerful  will  have  a  school  of  cheerful 


42  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

and  animated  pupils,  and  more  good,  honest  luird  work 
will  bo  done  in  a  school  of  this  kind  in  a  month  than 
could  be  done  in  one  of  an  opposite  character  in  a  year. 
A  cheerless  teacher  should  never  be  permitted  to  asso- 
ciate with  small  children.  The  teacher  whose  august 
presence  frightens  his  pupils,  and  who  controls  them 
by  fear,  is  out  of  place  in  a  school-room ;  and  no  Board 
of  Directors  should  give  employment  to  a  person  of  such 
a  temperament.  Youth  is  the  sunshine  of  life,  and  no 
clouds  should  be  permitted  to  cast  their  shadows  over 
the  ha])piues3  which  God  has  implanted  in  the  glad 
young  hearts  of  children. 

Suggestions  on  School  Hygiene. 

1.  Diplomas  should  not  be  secured  at  the  expense  of 
health.  It  is  better  that  our  boys  and  girls  should  grow 
up  healthy  men  and  women  than  that  they  should  acquire 
scholarship  at  the  expense  of  physical  prostration  and  bod- 
ily deformity. 

2.  See  that  all  your  pupils  exercise,  and  that  the  exer- 
cise be  pleasant, 

3.  Regulate  the  plays  of  your  pupils  in  such  a  way  as 
to  make  them  most  beneficial  physically  and  mentally. 

4.  Assign  no  lesson  for  home  study  to  children  under 
ten  years  of  age. 

5.  Suggest  pleasant  reading  to  your  pupils  as  a  mental 
recreation. 

6.  Do  not  encourage  precocious  children  by  rajjid  pro- 
motion or  over-praise ;  rather  hold  them  in  check, 

7.  "When  children  are  sick  do  not  permit  thera  to 
study. 

8.  See  that  your  school-room  is  well  ventilated,  but  be 


SCHOOL   REQUISITES.  43 

careful  that  children  are  not  subjected  to  unnecessary  drafts 
of  air. 

9.  Give  frequent  talks  to  your  pupils  on  hygiene  in 
such  language  as  they  can  readily  understand. 

10.  Explain  to  your  pupils  how  to  preserve  their  teeth. 

11.  Show  them  the  importance  of  wearing  their  cloth- 
ing loose  rather  than  tight,  and  explain  why  the  former 
is  more  healthful. 

1 2.  Explain  to  them  the  importance  of  thorough  mas- 
tication of  their  food. 

1 3.  Explain  to  them  the  necessity  of  bathing  frequently 
and  taking  plenty  of  sleep. 

14.  Show  them  the  importance  of  retiring  and  rising 
at  fixed  hours. 

15.  Tell  them  what  articles  of  diet  are  wholesome,  and 
what  otherwise. 

16.  Show  them  that  they  can  prevent  sickness  by  ob- 
serving the  laws  of  health. 

17.  Have  them  assume  such  positions,  whether  sitting 
or  standing,  as  will  permit  the  lungs  to  expand  fully. 

18.  Impress  upon  them  frequently  the  importance  of 
taking  good  care  of  their  bodies  and  preserving  the  health, 
oven  at  the  expense  of  great  knowledge. 

19.  Do  not  permit  your  pupils  to  hold  their  books  in 
such  a  way  as  to  cause  near-sightedness. 

20.  Recommend  to  them  proper  hygienic  reading — 
such  books  as  will  teach  them  to  know  themselves  and 
preserve  their  physical  vigor  undiminished. 

V.  School  Grades. 

A  system  of  graded  schools  divides  pupils  according 
to  their  attainments  into  several  divisions,  each  of  which 


44  SCilOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

is  aocommodated  in  a  separate  room.  Thus  the  more 
advanced  i)ni>ils  are  made  to  constitute  a  irrammar  school 
or  a  higli  scliool,  while  the  begiiuiers  would  properly  be 
known  as  a  i)riinary  school. 

Advantages. — The  chief  advantages  of  graded  schools 
are  the  following: 

1 .  They  Save  Labor. 

2.  They  are  more  Economical. 

3.  They  are  Productive  of  Better  Teaching. 

4.  They  are  more  Easily  Governed. 

5.  They  Prompt  the  Ambition  of  Pupils. 

G.  They  Furnish  Education  in  the  Higher  Branches. 

1.  Graded  Schools  Save  Labor. — In  a  well-graded 
school  the  number  of  classes  is  much  smaller  than  in 
ono  ungraded.  The  experienced  teacher  discovers  also 
that  a  class  of  twelve  or  fifteen  pupils  is  more  inter- 
esting and  more  readily  taught  than  if  the  .same  pupils 
were  distributed  in  two  or  more  classes.  A  large  class 
requires  no  more  time  to  teach  than  one  having  a  smaller 
number  of  pni)ils,  and  by  this  combination  of  classes 
much  labor  is  economized. 

2.  They  are  more  Economical. — Since  graded  schools 
require  a  smaller  number  of  classes,  the  number  of 
teachers  is  diminished,  and  thus  a  saving  in  the  cost  of 
teacliing  is  effected.  Graded  schools  also  save  expense 
in  the  purchase  of  apparatus  and  in  the  building  of 
school-houses,  ])articularly  in  villages  and  larger  towns. 

3.  They  are  Productive  of  Better  Teaching. — The  num- 
ber of  classes  being  reduced,  the  teacher  in  charge  has 
more  time  for  the   special  preparation  of  the  various 


SCHOOL,   REQUISITES.  45 

lessons  to  be  taught.  The  number  of  branches  taught 
in  the  difFerent  departments  of  a  graded  school  is  smaller 
than  that  of  a  mixed  school ;  and  here  also  time  is 
i^avcd,  and  the  teacher  is  enabled  to  prepare  himself 
better  for  his  work.  It  is  true  also  that  a  teacher  who 
limits  himself  to  the  teaching  of  a  few  branches  will 
do  much  better  work,  especially  if  these  are  to  his  taste, 
than  if  he  attemi)t  to  teach  all  the  studies  of  a  school 
course. 

4.  They  are  more  Easily  Governed. —  In  a  graded  school 
the  pupils  are  usually  nearly  of  the  same  age;  there  are, 
therefore,  fewer  causes  for  disturbance  than  would  nat- 
urally exist  in  a  school  where  })upils  of  all  ages  associate 
and  recite  in  the  same  room.  The  easiest  school  to  gov- 
ern is  usually  that  in  which  the  children  are  most  nearly 
equal  in  age  and  attainments.  In  a  graded  school  the 
fear  that  they  may,  as  the  result  of  improper  behavior, 
negligence,  or  idleness,  fall  behind  their  classmates,  is  a 
strong  incentive  to  keep  pupils  obedient  and  orderly. 

5.  They  Prompt  the  Ambition  of  Pupils. — Not  only 
does  the  fear  of  falling  behind  their  classmates  tend  to 
good  order  among  pupils  in  a  graded  school,  but  there 
is  also  a  desire  created  to  excel  and  prepare  for  promo- 
tion to  higher  grades.  Every  pupil,  having  in  his  mind 
this  promotion  from  one  grade  to  another,  will  strive 
more  earnestly  to  succeed  and  keep  pace  with  his  com- 
jvinions  in  their  efforts  to  reach  higher  departments. 

6.  They  Furnish  Education  in  the  Higher  Branches. — 
Graded  sdiools  are  not  meant  to  take  the  place  of  acad- 
emies, colleges,  or  other  higher  institutions  of  learning; 
but,  inasmuch  as  many  of  the  brightest  children  are  so 
situated  pecuniarily  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to 


46  .  SCHOOL.    MA^'AGEMKNT. 

attend  any  higl.  school  under  private  control,  the  graded 
sc'hool  pro{)erly  supplies  a  demand  which  exists  in  every 
district.  Talent  is  not  the  possession  of  one  class  of 
society  alone;  and  since  it  is  to  the  advantage  of  the 
state  to  develop  all  talent  to  its  fullest  extent,  certainly 
the  graded  school,  because  it  offers  opportunities  for 
higher  education  which  could  not  be  secured  through 
any  other  means,  ought  to  receive  the  encouragement 
of  every  one  interested  in  the  education  of  the  whole 
peoi)le. 

Objection  to  Graded  Schools. — The  chief  objection 
urged  against  graded  schools  is  that  they  suppress  indi- 
viduality. All  the  pupils  being  made  to  conform  to  a 
certain  line  of  study,  it  is  urged  that  individual  talent 
must  necessarily  be  neglected,  and  that  this  tendency  to 
uniformity  will  thus  suppress  the  efforts  of  genius  to 
make  itself  felt.  If  the  objection  be  sound  so  far  as  it 
applies  to  graded  schools,  it  must  be  regarded  as  sound 
in  its  application  to  all  schools  that  do  not  give  special 
attention  to  the  development  of  special  talents.  But 
public  schools  do  not  aim  at  making  specialists.  The 
best  they  can  do  is  to  give  the  rudiments  of  a  general 
education,  leaving  special  education  to  technical  schools 
which  prepare  for  special  callings. 

The  Number  of  Grades. — The  number  of  grades  is  in 
a  great  measure  governed  by  the  number  of  pupils. 
Where  the  number  of  ])upils  is  less  than  one  hundred 
but  two  grades  could  be  established.  From  one  hun- 
dred to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pupils  would  require 
three  grades,  and  above  that  number  at  least  four  grades. 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  47 

Til  sonic  cities  the  division  is  into  Primary,  Secondary, 
Grammar,  and  High  Schools.  Others  divide  into  Pri- 
mal^', Secondary,  Intermediate,  Grammar,  and  High 
Schools.  By  this  latter  arrangement  two  years  may  be 
given  to  each  of  the  divisions  except  the  High  School, 
which  ought  to  have  a  course  of  study  covering  three  or 
four  years,  thus  making  the  school  life  eleven  or  twelve 
years  in  length. 

By  subdividing  each  of  these  divisions  into  classes  A 
and  B  there  is  constant  annual  promotion  from  class  to 
class  from  the  time  the  child  enters  the  schools  until  he 
quits  them.  Thus  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  if  his 
work  has  been  satisfactory,  he  may  be  promoted  from 
the  B  class  Primary  to  the  A  class  Primary ;  at  the  end 
of  the  second  year  he  goes  from  the  Primary  to  the 
Secondary,  and  so  on  until  he  reaches  the  High  School, 
where,  if  he  be  diligent  and  studious,  he  ought  to  be 
promoted  from  class  to  class  until  he  has  completed  the 
whole  course  of  study.  Thus  there  is  a  constant  incen- 
tive urging  him  forward  from  the  beginning  to  the  close 
of  his  school  life. 

The  number  of  grades  must  be  determined  partly  also 
by  the  course  of  study  to  be  pursued,  a  fuller  course  re- 
quiring usually  a  greater  number  of  grades.  It  will  be 
found  that  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  primary  grades 
will  be  much  greater  than  that  in  any  other,  and  there 
will  be  a  gradual  decrease  in  number  up  to  the  High 
School. 

Manner   of    Grading. — The   two   chief    methods    of 

grading  are  the  Union  and  the  Separate  Graded  Schools. 

The  Union  Graded  Schools  usually  have  all  the  pupils 


48  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

in  one  buikling,  with  a  principal  or  a  Superintendent, 
wlio  has  charge  of  all  the  schools,  but  with  an  assistant 
for  each  room.  A  modification  of  this  plan,  where  the 
number  of  pupils  is  sufficiently  great,  consists  in  having 
a  General  Superintendent,  with  a  principal  for  each  de- 
partment. Primary,  Secondary,  etc.  This  plan  requires 
an  assembly-room  for  each  department,  with  recitation- 
rooms  attached. 

The  Separate  Graded  System  locates  the  various  grades 
in  different  parts  of  the  district,  the  Primary  School  by 
itself,  the  Grammar  School  by  itself,  and  so  on.  In  this 
case  also  a  separate  principal  may  be  ])rovided  for  each 
building,  with  a  General  Superintendent  for  the  whole 
town  or  city.  The  lower  grades  under  this  system 
should  be  located  at  the  most  convenient  points,  while 
the  higher  grades  should  be  placed  near  the  centre  of 
the  district,  particularly  if  this  be  also  the  centre  of 
population. 

Graded  Schools  for  Country  Districts  should  be  formed 
wherever  the  number  of  school  children  is  sufficiently 
large  to  furnish  the  material  for  two  or  more  grades. 
Many  country  districts  might  have  a  central  Grammar 
or  High  School,  if  so  inclined,  by  placing  the  school- 
houses  for  the  primary  pupils  at  the  most  convenient 
points,  and  locating  the  Grammar  School  near  the  cen- 
tre of  the  district,  or  where  it  would  prove  most  conve- 
nient of  access  to  the  greatest  number.  If,  then,  the 
admissions  to  this  school  were  made  on  merit  alone, 
as  shown  during  the  term  and  at  examination  of  the 
primary  schools  of  the  district,  a  powerful  incentive 
to  study  would  be  given  to  all  the  pupils  of  the 
district. 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  49 

The  Kindergarten. — The  Kindergarten — literally,  a 
"children's  garden" — is  a  primary  school  intended  for 
children  too  young  to  enter  upon  the  ordinary  school 
work.  The  Kindergarten  system  was  first  used  by  an 
eminent  German  teacher,  Friedrich  Froebel,  who  had 
been  one  of  Pestalozzi's  pupils. 

TIic  leading  feature  of  Froebel's  system  was  that  of 
directing  the  active  play-principle  of  childhood  into 
useful  channels.  Children  were  brought  together  and 
surrounded  with  such  conditions  that  their  own  free 
actions  would  lead  them  to  the  best  self-development. 
The  teacher  acted  chiefly  as  a  guide.  Plays  were  so 
arranged  that  each  in  its  turn  became  instrumental  in 
furnishing  the  child  new  ideas  and  in  developing  new 
activities. 

Tile  methods  of  the  Kindergarten  are  mainly  the  wise 
direction  of  play.  The  kind  of  play  is  selected  by  the 
child,  but  the  method  is  controlled  by  the  teacher,  and 
is  so  directed  as  to  convey  some  important  lesson. 
Singing  constitutes  one  of  the  main  features  of  Kinder- 
garten work.  The  pupil  finds  his  work  pleasurable,  and 
thought  is  developed  because  the  teacher  tells  little,  and 
allows  the  child  under  careful  guidance  to  discover  truth 
for  himself. 

VI.  School  Aids. 

A  well-regulated  school  needs,  in  addition  to  the 
apparatus  heretofore  mentioned,  certain  general  aids 
designed  to  promote  study  and  good  order.     These  are — 

1.  Textbooks. 

2.  The  School  Library. 

3.  School  Records. 

4 


60  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

1.  Textbooks. — Textbooks  are  a  necessity  in  tlie  work 
of  teacliiiiir.  Oral  instruction  and  lectures  have  their 
proper  place  in  a  school  course,  but  they  cannot  be  sub- 
stituted for  the  textbook.  The  mind  is  disciplined  by 
study,  and  the  requisite  study  can  be  secured  only  in 
connection  with  a  properly-arranged  book.  Next  to  a 
live,  energetic,  and  interesting  teacher,  the  textbook  is 
the  most  important  educational  agency  for  giving  to  the 
child  the  proper  mental  discipline.  The  discipline  af- 
forded by  the  difficulties  which  the  child  overcomes  in 
his  study  of  a  good  textbook  is  of  vastly  more  import- 
ance than  the  recitation  or  any  possible  course  of  oral 
instruction.  But  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  no 
textbook  can  cover  all  of  the  ground,  and  that  it  is  there- 
fore tlie  duty  to  supplement  and  add  to  the  instruction 
conveyed  by  the  book. 

The  Objects  of  Textbooks. — 1.  They  give  Reliable  In- 
fomiation. — The  knowledge  given  by  a  good  textbook 
is  not  only  put  in  such  a  shape  as  to  make  it  at  once 
available  to  the  learner,  but  it  is  also  reliable,  and  the 
information  conveyed  is  stated  in  more  concise  language 
than  it  would  be  if  imparted  wholly  by  oral  instruction. 
This  is  of  great  advantage  to  both  teacher  and  pupil,  as 
it  leads  to  clearness  of  thought. 

2.  They  Secure  System.— Under  purely  oral  instruction 
the  language  of  the  teacher  as  he  states  and  restates  his 
principles  must  necessarily  lead  to  looseness  of  thought 
on  the  part  of  his  pupils.  This  is  particularly  true  in 
the  case  of  younger  pupils.  Clearness  of  statement  and 
logical  arrangement  of  parts  in  a  textbook  will  tend  to 
make  pupils  systcmaHc.     Indeed,  a  well-arranged  text- 


SCHOOL   REQUISITES.  51 

l)o<jk   is  a  s^roat  aid   to  students  in  systematizing  their 
)uetljod.s  of"  tliou<2jiit  and  work. 

3.  They  Employ  the  Time  of  Pupils.— In  all  kinds  of 
schools  there  must  necessarily  be  much  time  in  whicl) 
the  pupil  is  not  engaged  in  recitation.  The  textbook 
utilizes  this  by  giving  the  pupil  an  opportunity  to  keep 
himself  busy  and  at  the  same  time  gain  mental  discipline 
by  systematic  study. 

4.  They  Aid  the  Teacher. — Few  teachers  indeed  are 
thoroughly  competent  to  communicate  the  knowledge 
claimed  at  their  hands,  or  communicate  it  in  so  intelli- 
gent a  manner,  as  does  the  textbook,  which  aids  the 
teacher  by  presenting  facts  in  a  concise  and  systematic 
way,  relieves  him  of  the  necessity  of  making  special 
j)reparation  to  put  liis  knoMdedge  in  logical  shape,  and 
saves  much  time  which  would  be  required  to  separate 
the  essential  from  the  non-essential  parts. 

The  Chapacteristics  of  Good  Textbooks. — The  clia- 
racteristics  of  a  good  textbook  are  as  follows : 

1 .  It  should  be  Logically  Arranged. — A  properly-arranged 
textbook  is  not  only  a  great  aid  to  the  pupils  in  pursuing 
a  study,  but  it  is  also  an  important  help  to  the  teacher  in 
conducting  the  recitation.  The  principles  and  facts  stated 
should  not  be  fragmentary.  Each,  so  far  as  possible, 
should  be  connected  with  knowledge  previously  acquired 
or  statements  previously  presented.  A  logical ly-arrange<l 
textbook  induces  logical  modes  of  thought,  and  thus  in 
it-elf  furnishes  valual>le  discipline. 

2.  A  Textbook  should  be  Clear. — The  language  of  a 
textbook  should  be  so  clear  that  the  learner  cannot  mis- 
understand it.     In  the  statement  of  principles  or  prob- 


52  SCUOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

loms  the  pupils  should  not  be  left  iu  doubt  as  to  the 
meauiug  by  any  ambiguous  construction  wliich  a  sen- 
tence may  bear.  Fac;ts  should  be  stated  in  such  clear 
language  that  the  learner  may  apprehend  the  meaning  at 
a  glance.  Textbooks  of  this  character  tend  to  simplify 
greatly  the  work  of  both  teaching  and  learning. 

3.  A  Textbook  should  be  Interesting. — Textbooks  may 
be  made  interesting  by  their  arrangement  as  well  as  by 
the  matter  they  are  made  to  contain.  They  ought  not 
to  be  a  mere  mass  of  dry  facts ;  the  princij)les  enunci- 
ated should  be  illustrated  by  such  examples  as  will  at- 
tract the  attention  of  the  learner,  and  at  the  same  time 
elucidate  the  subject  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
him  comprehend.  The  most  important  principles  and 
the  most  interesting  facts  should  be  given,  and  these 
in  such  a  way  as  to  leiid  the  pupil  to  love  "study. 

4.  The  Textbook  should  be  Brief. — A  textbook  is  not 
designed  to  present  an  exhaustive  discussion  of  any  sub- 
ject, and  it  ought  not,  therefore,  to  be  made  too  compre- 
hensive. A  suggestive  textbook  that  leads  the  pupil  to 
original  investigation  or  the  consulting  of  cyclopaedias 
and  dictionaries  is  much  more  valuable  than  one  which 
attempts  to  be  exhaustive  in  its  treatment.  True,  a  book 
may  present  all  the  most  important  facts  aiKl  j)rinciples 
of  a  branch  of  knowledge  and  be  a  good  textbook,  but 
the  best  books  always  leave  much  for  the  teacher  to  add 
or  for  the  learner  to  find  out  for  himself. 

5.  The  Style  of  a  Textbook  should  be  a  Model.— The 
style  in  which  a  textbook  is  written  should  not  only 
be  clear  and  the  language  such  as  the  pupil  can  readily 
comprehend,  but  the  thoughts  should  be  presented  in 
such  a  forcible  and  yet  graceful  way  as  to  attract  the 


SCHOOL   REQUISITES.  53 

attention.  It  is  too  often  the  case  that  an  author's  style 
is  so  labored  or  his  language  so  obscure  that  the  student 
finds  great  difficulty  in  deciphering  the  meaning.  The 
language  should  be  not  oidy  choice,  but  also  correct. 
Nothing  will  have  a  stronger  tendency  to  throw  doubt  on 
the  statement  of  an  author  than  the  fact  that  he  does  not 
use  his  own  language  correctly. 

6.  The  Textbook  must  be  Adapted  to  the  Capacity  of  the 
Student. — In  general,  they  can  write  textbooks  best  who 
best  understand  the  operations  of  the  child-mind,  and 
they  understand  child-mind  the  best  who  constantly 
associate  with  children,  and  who,  as  teachers,  observe 
the  mode  of  thought  which  the  child  follows.  A  book 
written  in  such  style  or  such  language  as  is  beyond  the 
ciipacity  of  the  child  to  grasp  is  not  only  useless,  but 
it  also  is  pernicious.  In  such  case  the  child  will  either 
commit  the  words  of  the  book  to  memory  without  un- 
derstanding what  is  meant,  or  become  discouraged  and 
lose  interest  in  the  study.  All  textbooks,  therefore, should 
be  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the  class  of  pupils  for  whom 
they  are  intended,  and  this  both  in  style  and  language,  as 
well  as  in  the  matter  presented. 

7.  A  Textbook  should  be  Attractive  in  Appearance.— 
The  chief  requisites  to  a  beautiful  textbook  are  good 
paper,  attractive  illustrations,  and  good-sized,  clear  type. 
It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  use  broad  pages  and  small  type 
for  any  textbook.  No  one  can  estimate  the  injury  done  to 
eyesight  by  textbooks  of  this  character.  When  the  page 
exceeds  three  or  three  and  a  quarter  inches  in  width  it 
tires  the  eye  morQ  or  less  in  passing  from  one  line  to 
another,  and  the  broader  the  page  the  greater  the  injury. 
The  cost  of  manufacturing  books  with  good  type  and  good 


64  SfllOOIi    MANAGEMEKT. 

paptf  is  but  little  greater,  comparatively,  than  that  of 
man ufac taring  those  of  poorer  material.  Tlie  same 
rule  of  economy  that  is  good  elsewhere  is  good  here 
— that  good  goods,  though  higher  in  price,  are  the  least 
expensive. 

The  Abuse  of  Textbooks. — No  greater  educational  fal- 
lacy has  been  presented  than  that  which  urges  teachers  to 
do  away  with  the  textbook.  The  ultimate  result  is  found 
to  be  a  breaking  up  of  habits  of  study  and  a  destruction 
of  mental  discipline.  The  only  compensating  result  is  a 
mass  of  fragmentary  knowledge  which  hardly  deserves 
the  name.  Even  did  teachers  know  everything  in  con- 
nection with  the  subjects  they  teach,  textbooks  would 
be  a  necessity  in  order  that  pupils  might  discipline  their 
minds  by  study.  But,  under  the  present  condition  of 
things,  to  urge  teachers  to  throw  aside  the  textbook  and 
attempt  to  impart  all  instruction  orally  is  worse  than 
absurd;  it  is  criminal.  The  difficulty  lies  not  in  the 
too  frequent  use  of  textbooks,  but  in  their  abuse.  The 
following  evils  may  be  named  as  the  most  important  in 
the  use  of  the  textbook  : 

1.  Committiiig  the  Text  to  Memory. — There  are  certain 
portions  of  every  textbook  which  must  be  committed, 
but  one  of  the  chief  abuses  of  the  textbook  consists  in 
committing  everything  verbatim,  and  attempting  to  re- 
cite in  the  exact  language  of  the  book.  Definitions  and 
principles  stated  in  exact  terms  by  the  author  cannot  likely 
b}  improved  upon  by  the  student,  and  it  is  better,  there- 
fore, that  such  of  these  as  are  important  be  committed. 
But  in  the  relation  of  incidents  or  the  statement  of  facts 
the  pujtil  ought  to  be  permitted  to  use  his  own  language 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  55 

R-lieu  it  is  correct.     It  is  not  the  book,  but  the  subjects, 
whicii  he  studies  and  which  lie  Oilght  to  recite. 

2.  The  Teacher's  Use  of  a  Single  Textbook,  with  no 
knowledge  beyond,  is  to  be  condemned.  The  teacher 
who  goes  before  his  class  with  no  knowledge  of  anything 
outside  of  the  textbook  used  in  school  is  not  well  fitted 
for  his  position.  He  may  be  able  to  deceive  his  pupils 
if  he  be  well  versed  in  the  textbook  used,  but  the  know- 
ledge he  imparts  will  be  of  little  consequence,  and  the 
enthusiasm  which  a  teacher  ought  to  arouse  among  his 
pupils  will  in  his  case  be  found  wanting. 

3.  The  Teacher  should  Supplement  the  Textbook. — It 
is  not  enough  that  he  teach  only  what  is  found  in  the 
book,  or  that  he  take  upon  himself  the  duty  of  simply 
asking  questions  on  the  text  or  as  found  on  the  printed 
page.  This  ought  to  form  but  a  small  part  of  the  reci- 
tation. The  teacher  ought  to  encourage  his  pupils  to 
read  other  books  on  the  subjects  he  teaches  and  observe 
for  themselves.  But,  above  all,  he  ought  to  inform  him- 
self thoroughly  on  the  subject-matter  of  the  textbook 
by  consulting  similar  works,  and  give  his  pupils  the 
benefit  of  his  reading,  while  he  at  the  same  time  stim- 
ulates the  pupils  to  greater  effort.  He  should  make  the 
textbook  matter  the  text  or  groundwork  on  which  to 
ba.se  additional  instruction. 

The  Selection  of  Textbooks. — This  important  duty  is 
left  to  the  respective  Scliool  Boards.  The  teacher,  how- 
ever, should  be  consulted,  and  wherever  possible  his 
recomuKMidation  should  be  the  guide  for  the  Board's 
action.  Thi.s,  too,  for  the  reason  that  the  teacher  under- 
stands  best  the  Mants  of  both  hiuiiclf  and  the  pupils, 


56  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

and  knows  best  whet  style  of  book  would  render  teach- 
ing most  efFective.  Merit  of  course  should  be  the  gov- 
erning principle  which  should  decide  for  or  against  the 
adoption.  Changes  in  textbooks  should  not  be  made 
frequently,  but  when  worthless  books  are  in  use,  and 
better  ones  can  be  had  at  but  little  additional  expense, 
no  false  notion  of  economy  or  fear  of  narrow  public 
sentiment  should  for  a  moment  deter  a  Board  from 
doing  its  duty  in  adopting  the  best  books. 

The  Ownership  of  Textbooks. — By  far  the  most  eco- 
nomical plan  in  the  securing  of  textbooks  is  that  of 
having  them  purchased  and  owned  by  the  school  dis- 
trict. Pupils  and  patrons  purchase  at  retail  rates,  but 
School  Boards  could  make  satisfactory  arrangements 
with  publishers  to  secure  textbooks  at  much  less  expense. 
These  books  could  be  paid  for  out  of  the  school  funds  of 
the  district.  They  should  be  charged  to  each  pupil  when 
distributed,  and  credited  to  the  same  pupils  at  the  end 
of  the  term  if  returned  in  good  condition.  Payment 
should  be  required  for  those  damaged  or  lost.  It  would 
be  wise  for  the  legislatures  of  the  various  States  to  enact 
laws  which  would  empower  the  various  School  Boards 
thus  to  make  school  textbooks,  as  well  as  pencils,  chalk, 
and  other  school  equipments,  the  property  of  the  district. 

2.  The  School  Library. — 1.  Its  Importance. — Next  to 
the  school  itself,  one  of  the  most  important  educational 
agencies  in  a  conmiunity  is  the  school  library.  But 
comparatively  few  books  find  their  way  to  the  table  of 
the  rural  citizen.  Nothing  will  so  soon  su])ply  this 
want  as  the  establishment  of  a  library  in  the  public 


SCHOOL   REQUISITES.  57 

school  to  which  all,  but  particularly  the  children  of  the 
district,  may  have  access.  The  taste  for  reading  created 
in  the  child  while  at  school  will  grow,  and  in  the  end 
Ave  shall  have  as  the  result  broader  culture  and  a  higher 
grade  of  citizenship.  The  study  of  textbooks  alone, 
while  it  will  discipline  the  mind,  will  not  give  this 
broader  culture.  It  needs  the  reading  of  the  best 
thoughts  of  our  great  authors  on  literature,  science, 
and  art. 

2.  The  Books  to  be  Chosen  First  are  those  which  will 
enable  the  pupils  to  gain  knowledge  outside  of  the  text- 
book. These  will  embrace — first,  a  dictionary,  if  one 
be  not  included  among  the  apparatus  supplied  by  the 
Board ;  also  cyclopaedias  and  other  works  of  reference. 
To  the  cyclopaedias  should  be  added  historical  works, 
treating  not  only  of  the  United  States,  but  also  of  Eng- 
land, France,  Germany,  Greece,  Rome,  etc.  Then  should 
follow  the  works  of  the  most  prominent  British  and 
American  poets,  and  with  these  the  prose-writings  of 
Irving,  Prescott,  Dickens,  Thackeray,  Scott,  Hawthorne, 
Cooper,  Macaulay,  Carlyle,  Holland,  and  others.  A 
taste  could  thus  be  created  for  the  elegant  in  both  prose 
and  poetry,  while  the  vitiated  taste  created  by  the  cheap, 
flashy  literature  of  the  day  might  be  anticipated  and 
supplanted. 

3.  How  to  Secure  the  Library. — The  same  suggestions 
might  be  made  here  that  were  made  with  reference  to 
securing  apparatus.  The  chief  methods  to  be  recom- 
mended are  entertainments  and  a  subscription  fund. 
An  apjieal  to  the  School  Board  by  the  teacher  and  a 
committee  of  prominent  citizens  would  have  great 
weight.     An  appeal  to  the  citizens  to  make  donations 


58  SCHOOIi   MANAGEMENT. 

of  boctks  to  the  library  might  be  effective.  First  of  all, 
however,  an  interest  in  establishing  a  library  shonld  be 
aronsed  and  a  demand  for  reading  created.  Much  could 
be  done  in  this  matter  by  an  energetic  teacher's  making 
direct  personal  appeals  to  his  patrons.  The  library  once 
cstiiblished,  the  School  Board  should  vote  a  small  sum 
annually  for  the  purchase  of  new  books  and  the  rebind- 
ing  of  old  ones. 

4.  The  Management  of  the  Library.  —  During  the 
school  term  the  management  of  the  library  should  be 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher.  Books  of  reference 
should  of  course  be  consulted  in  the  room,  and  in  no 
case  ought  they  to  be  carried  to  the  pupils'  homes.  The 
teacher  should  kindly  consult  with  his  pupils  in  the 
selection  of  books,  adapting  the  reading  as  far  as  pos- 
sible to  the  taste  of  the  individual  minds.  The  pupils 
should  be  required  to  handle  the  books  with  care  and 
return  them  in  good  condition.  The  books  of  reference 
should  be  placed  where  they  can  be  consulted  at  any 
time,  but  all  other  books  should  be  given  out  at  a  spe- 
cified time,  as  Friday  afternoon  of  each  week.  During 
vacation  it  would  be  well  to  place  the  library  in  the  care 
of  some  citizen,  who  might  keep  the  school-room  open 
on  alternate  Saturdays  or  on  every  Saturday  for  an  hour. 
It  is  quite  as  important  that  the  library  be  used  in  vaca- 
tion as  during  the  school  term,  that  the  taste  once  acquired 
for  reading  may  not  be  lost. 

3.  School  Records. — Among  the  aids  to  school  man- 
agement school  records  play  an  important  part.  The 
chief  forms  which  these  records  may  take  will  be  deter- 
mined by  the  attendance,  the  deportment,  and  the  class- 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  59 

recitation,  tliiis  giving  three  forms  of  records.  This 
number  may,  however,  be  reduced  to  two,  the  first  con- 
taining a  record  of  admission  and  attendance,  and  the 
second  a  record  of  deportment  and  class-recitation.  A 
form  for  these  registers  need  not  be  given  here,  as  blank 
forms  are  in  many  cases  supplied  by  the  State,  and  others 
may  be  had  at  but  small  expense  from  publishing-houses. 
The  chief  advantages  of  school  records  are  as  follows : 

1.  They  are  an  Incentive  to  the  Teacher. — The  fact  that 
here  is  a  daily  record  of  the  attendance  and  deportment 
of  each  pupil,  which  may  be  compared  with  that  of 
other  schools  in  the  district,  induces  the  teacher  to  put 
forth  special  efforts  to  secure  regular  attendance  and 
proper  deportment  on  the  part  of  his  pupils.  The 
records  enable  him  also  to  systematize  his  work  and 
keep  in  mind  more  steadily  the  standing  of  his  pu])ils. 
AVith  these  records  the  possibility  of  his  doing  injustice 
to  the  pupils  is  also  in  a  great  measure  avoided. 

2.  They  are  an  Incentive  to  the  PupU. — The  child  who 
feels  that  every  absent-mark  is  recorded  against  him  for 
the  ins})ection  of  any  who  may  desire  to  consult  the 
record,  and  that  his  conduct  and  progress  are  registered 
j^^o  for  inspection  and  future  reference,  will  not  fail  to 
put  forth  his  best  efforts  to  please  the  teacher,  unless, 
indeed,  he  be  lost  to  all  sense  of  shame.  Every  expe- 
rienced teacher  knows  with  what  eagerness  ho  is  ap- 
proached by  even  young  men  and  young  women  desirous 
of  knowing  their  class-standing  at  the  close  of  an  exam- 
ination or  at  the  end  of  a  school  term.  A  private  note 
sent  home  at  the  ( lose  of  the  week  or  the  current  month, 
giving  the  absent-marks  and  the  class-standing  of  a 
negligent  pupil,  will  often  have  a  good  effect,  not  only 


60  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

Oil  the  child,  but  also  on  the  parents.  The  reading 
aloud  of  the  general  average  of  each  pui)il,  when  judi- 
ciously done,  may  also  occasionally  have  a  good  effect. 

3.  They  Fumisli  Information  to  Patrons. — One  of  the 
chief  uses  of  school  records  is  to  furnish  information 
to  the  patrons  and  the  school  officers,  and  thus  enable 
them  to  judge  of  the  comparative  progress  and  attend- 
ance of  the  respective  pupils.  They  also  enable  the 
school  officers  to  compare  the  relative  standing  of  the 
individual  schools  in  a  district,  and  judge  of  the  com- 
parative standing  of  the  same  school  from  year  to  year. 

4.  They  Furnish  Information  to  the  New  Teacher. — But 
few  schools  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  the  same 
teacher  in  charge  for  any  great  number  of  consecutive 
years.  New  teachers  taking  charge  without  the  aid  of 
school  records  and  registers  are  compelled  to  work 
blindly  for  a  time.  But  where  these  records  are  well 
kept  and  handed  down  from  each  teacher  to  his  suc- 
cessor, the  incoming  teacher  is  enabled  to  begin  his 
work  intelligently  and  avoid  loss  of  time. 

The  following  are  the  chief  objections  urged  against 
the  use  of  class  records : 

1.  They  Require  too  much  Attention. — This  objection 
is  not  urged  against  the  attendance  roll,  but  chiefly 
against  the  class  record  showing  the  daily  progress  or 
class-standing.  In  small  schools  the  objection  is  not 
valid,  but  certainly  in  large  schools,  if  pupils  are 
marked  at  each  recitation,  considerable  valuable  time 
will  be  consumed  in  this  way.  Postponing  the  marking 
until  the  close  of  the  school  for  the  day  does  not  seem 
to  be  a  good  plan,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  alraosfimpos- 


SCHOOL    REQUISITES.  61 

siblc  to  remember  distinctly  the  merit  of  each  pupil's 
individual  recitations  for  the  day. 

2.  Tke  Judgment  of  Teachers  Differs. — It  is  urged  that 
what  would  be  considered  a  meritorious  recitation  by 
one  teacher  would  in  the  estimation  of  another  more 
rigid  be  deemed  only  passable,  and  thus  the  marks 
would  so  vary  as  to  lose  all  value.  It  is  urged  also 
that  a  teacher  is  likely  to  mark  differently  according  to 
his  moods  and  the  condition  of  his  health — that  when 
in  a  pleasant  mood  the  marks  will  be  higher  than  when 
he  is  despondent  or  suffering  from  ill-health,  consequent- 
ly the  register  would  not  record  accurately  the  progress 
of  the  pupils. 

There  is  some  force  in  each  of  these  objections,  but 
the  advantages  of  school  records  so  largely  outweigh  the 
disadvantages  that  we  think  they  ought  to  be  used.  Of 
course  they  must  be  judiciously  kept  and  the  teacher 
must  be  conscientious  in  his  marking.  If  properly 
used  they  will  prove  a  valuable  aid  in  school  manage- 
ment. • 


CHAPTER  II. 

School  Organization. 

School  Organization  consists  in  suc^h  a  systematizing  of 
the  school  employments  as  will  enable  the  teacher  and  the 
pupils  to  do  the  greatest  amount  of  effective  work  with 
the  least  friction  and  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  A 
complete  organization  is  one  of  the  essentials  to  success. 
If  the  work  of  the  scliool  be  systematized,  and  all  school 
api)liances  and  school  machinery  be  so  arranged  as  to  do 
the  work  most  efficiently,  the  difficulties  in  discipline  will 
be  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  the  labor  of  learning  will 
become  a  pleasure.  The  work  of  organizing  an  ungraded 
school  is  a  difficult  task,  even  for  an  experienced  teacher, 
and  in  the  hands  of  a  beginner  the  task  becomes  doubly 
difficult.  To  provide  for  the  efficient  education  of  the 
child  mentally,  morally,  and  physically,  is  a  work  re- 
quiring not  only  nuich  careful  thought,  but  also  great 
skill  and  patience. 

The  First  Day  of  School  is  one  of  the  most  important 
in  the  term.  It  is  necessary  to  make  a  good  beginning 
and  create  a  favorable  impression  on  the  pupils  the  first 
time  the  teacher  meets  them.  The  trial  is  a  serious  one, 
but  it  need  not  be  feared  if  the  teacher  has  made  all  the 
necessary  preparation  to  make  a  good  impression  and  win 
the  pupils  to  him.  Nor  will  the  influence  he  wields  be 
limited  to  his  pupils;   these  in  turn  will  communicate 

02 


SCHOOL    ORGANIZATION.  63 

their  opiuion  of  tlie  teacher  to  the  parents,  and  judg- 
ment will  be  promptly  rendered. 

The  Teacher  should  Visit  the  Neighborhood  before  tlie 
opening  of  school.  This  he  may  do  a  week  or  tAvo  in 
advance  or  a  few  days  in  advance,  but  in  either  case  he 
should  meet  some  of  the  most  prominent  Directors  and 
citizens,  whose  acquaintance  he  should  cultivate  and  wliose 
advice  and  friendship  he  should  strive  to  secure  before  be- 
ginning his  responsible  work. 

The  Views  of  the  Community  with  reference  to  school 
work  should  be  among  the  first  things  to  claim  his  atten- 
tion. It  will  be  a  matter  of  prime  importance  for  him  to 
know  whether  the  citizens  of  tlie  district  are  progrefesive 
or  otherwise,  that  his  plans  may  be  adapted  to  their  educa- 
tional wants  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  the  least  friction. 
These  facts  he  can  be.st  learn  from  the  intelligent  citizens, 
while  at  the  same  time  he  is  enabled  to  pave  the  way  for 
securing  their  co-operation  in  his  work. 

A  second  object  of  the  visit  is  that  of  learning  the  meth- 
ods of  managevxent  and  teaching  pursued  by  the  previous 
teacher.  This  can  be  best  effected  by  consulting  the  pre- 
vious teacher  personally  if  he  reside  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  if  not,  then  by  consulting  some  of  the  most  intelli- 
gent school  officers  or  citizens  of  the  community.  Hav- 
ing once  learned  these  methods,  lie  should  be  careful  not 
to  criticise  them  or  speak  disparagingly  of  his  predeces- 
sor's work,  but  rather  make  such  changes  as  he  may 
deem  necessary  in  a  quiet,  unostentatious  way. 

A  third  object  of  the  visit  is  that  of  ascertaining  what 
changes  may  be  necessary  or  prudent,  either  in  the  man- 
agement of  the  school  or  in  the  methods  of  instruction. 
Previous  to  making  such  changes  it  would  be  wise  for 


64  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


tlie  tcaclier  to  submit  them  to  the  school  officers  and 
influential  citizens  with 
dorsement  and  support. 


influential  citizens  with  the  view  of  securing  their  iu- 


Suggestioiis. 

Be  Early  at  School. — If  possible,  the  teacher  should  be 
at  the  school-house  and  have  everything  ready  for  the 
day's  work  before  the  pupils  arrive.  A  few  kind  and 
cheering  words  of  welcome  to  each  pupil  as  he  comes 
will  do  much  to  win  for  the  teacher  the  friendship  of 
the  children  and  make  the  first  day's  work  successful. 

Have  your  Plan  of  Work  Ready. — No  time  should  be 
lost  in  wondering  what  to  do  first.  The  teacher  should 
have  his  plan  of  organization  prepared,  and  make  use 
of  it  at  once.  As  soon  as  the  pupils  have  become  seated 
a  few  pleasant  remarks  may  be  made,  showing  that  the 
teacher  is  desirous  of  making  the  school  pleasant  and 
profitable  to  the  children  and  the  community,  and  ask- 
ing kindly  their  help.  The  better  nature  of  the  chil- 
dren may  be  reached  in  this  way,  and  the  cases  are 
rare  in  which  the  teacher  will  not  find  his  efforts  sus- 
tained by  both  pupils  and  parents. 

Assign  Work  Promptly. — The  classification  of  your 
predecessor,  even  though  defective,  will  be  sufficiently 
accurate  for  the  first  half  day's  work.  Have  your  pro- 
gramme arranged,  so  that  classes  may  be  called  upon  with- 
out delay.  Quite  a  good  plan  is  that  of  assigning  lessons 
to  the  reading  classes  first,  and  when  these  are  called  upon 
to  recite,  other  work  may  be  given  to  them  which  they  can 
prepare  after  returning  to  their  seats.  All  may  thus  be 
kept  busy,  and  this  in  itself  will  be  coniucive  to  good 
order. 


SCHOOL   ORGANIZATION.  65 

Be  Cheerful  and  Patient. — Nothing  will  tend  to  secure 
ready  obedience  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  so  much  as  the 
cheerfulness  and  patience  of  the  teacher  during  the  first 
day's  work.  Do  not  become  nervous  and  attempt  to 
accomplish  too  much.  It  is  not  possible  to  make  the 
machinery  work  as  smoothly  the  first  day  as  when  the 
school  is  fully  organized,  and  it  is  folly  for  any  teacher 
to  worry  and  fret  because  he  thinks  he  is  not  accom- 
plishing enough. 

Seating. — In  the  choice  of  seats  for  the  first  day  it  is 
best  for  the  teacher  not  to  interfere,  unless  some  of  the 
smaller  pupils  should  attempt  to  occupy  the  desks  prop- 
erly belonging  to  the  larger  ones.  In  that  case  a  quiet 
request  will  likely  be  all  that  is  necessary  to  secure  the 
required  change.  It  may  be  well  to  announce  that  the 
pupils  will  be  permitted  to  retain  such  seats  as  they  have 
chosen,  so  long  as  the  occupants  do  not  interfere  with  the 
good  order  of  the  school,  but  that  the  teacher  reserves  the 
right  to  make  a  change  whenever  the  welfare  of  the  school 
makes  it  necessary. 

Temporary  Signals  may  be  devised  for  the  convenience 
of  both  pupils  and  teacher.  Thus,  for  the  purpose  of 
asking  permission  to  leave  the  seat  or  ask  a  question 
the  pupil  may  raise  the  hand  and  receive  the  assent  of 
the  teacher.  Some  excellent  teachers  pursue  the  plan  of 
having  a  special  signal  for  each  request,  as  the  raising  of 
one  finger  for  permission  to  speak  with  a  neighboring 
pupil,  two  for  permission  to  come  to  the  teacher's  desk, 
three  for  permission  to  leave  the  room,  and  so  on. 

Temporary  Rules. — The  teacher  must  not  make  the 
mistake  of  drawing  up  a  series  of  rules  for  the  govern- 
ment of  his  pupils  the  first  day  of  school.     Indeed,  the 

5 


(j(j  SCHOOL    MA^IAGEMENT. 

best  management  is  that  wliieh  will  postpone  all  neces- 
sity for  these  nilcs  indefinitely.  Not  until  the  conduct 
of' the  pupils  becomes  such  as  to  justify  the  rules  should 
there  be  any  mention  made  of  them.  One  of  the  most 
serious  mistakes  of  inexperienced  teachers  is  that  of  de- 
pending upon  a  list  of  inflexible  rules  by  which  to  gov- 
ern a  school. 

Permanent  Organization. 

No  school  organization  can  be  regarded  as  strictly 
permanent.  No  teacher  can  foresee  all  the  difficulties 
with  which  he  will  have  to  contend,  and  in  the  nature 
of  things  it  will  therefore  be  impossible  for  him  to 
anticipate  them  by  any  perfect  scheme  of  organization. 
The  best  he  can  do  is  to  watch  carefully  the  working  of 
his  temporary  organization,  and  adopt  such  features  of 
it  as  may  seem  to  him  worthy  of  being  preserved  per- 
manently. He  will  need,  however,  to  add  such  other 
feiitures  as  may  seem  to  him  necessary  to  secure  profit- 
able and  effective  work.  Among  these  will  be  proper 
classification,  a  well-arranged  programme,  effective  school 
signals,  and  proper  attention  to  the  manner  of  opening 
and  closing  school,  the  seating  of  pupils,  and  the  re- 
cesses. 

1.  School  Classificiitiou. 

School  Classification  consists  in  grouping  pupils  in 
classes  according  to  capacity  or  advancement  for  the 
purj)ose  of  study  and  recitation.  Close  classification 
puts  each  pupil  in  the  same  class  in  all  studies,  and 
gives  him  an  opportunity  of  equal  advancement  in  all 
branches.      Loose   classification   permits   the    pupil   to 


SCHOOL   ORGANIZATION.  67 

recite  hirf  studies  in  different  classes  according  to  the 
advancement  he  has  made. 

In  the  lower-grade  schools  the  plan  of  close  classi- 
fi(3ation  is  much  the  better.  Should  pupils  find  them- 
selves in  advance  of  their  classmates  in  some  branches 
and  not  equal  to  them  in  others,  there  is  all  the  more 
reason  why  they  should  devote  less  time  to  those  studies 
in  which  they  are  most  proficient  and  more  to  those 
about  which  they  know  least. 

In  the  higher-grade  schools  it  is  often  convenient  to 
adopt  the  plan  of  loose  classification,  particularly  in  the 
case  of  such  pupils  as  may  have  neglected  the  study  of 
some  of  the  necessary  branches  while  they  were  in  the 
lower  grades,  also  in  the  case  of  such  pupils  as  may 
have  but  a  short  time  to  attend  school,  and  are  desirous 
of  giving  special  attention  to  a  few  studies  only. 

Advantages  of  Classification. — The  ibllowing  may  be 
named  as  the  chief  adv^antages  of  classification  : 

1.  Classification  Enables  the  Teacher  to  Estimate  the 
Comparative  Progress  of  Ms  Pupils. — In  no  way  can 
the  teacher  judge  of  the  actual  work  of  his  pupils  so 
accurately  as  when  they  meet  in  class-recitation,  where 
all  have  the  same  work  to  perform. 

2.  Classification  Makes  TeacMng  more  Efi'ective. — An 
explanation  may  be  made  as  readily  to  a  whole  class  as 
to  a  few  individuals.  The  teacher  is  thus  enabled  also 
to  make  special  preparation  for  each  recitation — some- 
thing which  would  be  almost  an  impossibility  in  a  poor- 
ly-classified school  or  one  wholly  unclassified. 

3.  Classification  Economizes  the  Time  of  both  Teacher 
and  Pupils. — Particularly  is  this  true  in  the  case  of  the 
teacher.     An  illustration  or  an  explanation  given  to  a 


gg  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

class  is  c(iuivak'iit  to  the  same  illustration  or  explanation 
given  tifteen  or  twenty  times  to  as  many  individual 
i)ui)ils.  The  recitation  of  a  whole  class  need  not  con- 
sume mucii  more  time  than  the  recitation  of  a  single 
pupil,  particularly  if  all  the  members  are  attentive. 

4.  Classification  Stimulates  Pupils. — Children  will  work 
more  diligently  if  they  have  classmates.  The  compe- 
tition of  classmates  is  an  incentive  to  exertion.  The 
presence  and  the  criticism  of  classmates  also  have  a 
beneficial  effect  in  making  the  pupils  anxious  to  recite 
well  and  make  proper  progress  in  study. 

5.  Classification  Makes  Enthusiastic  Teaching. — Small 
classes  are  usually  most  easily  governed,  but  larger 
classes  give  a  teacher  inspiration  and  arouse  enthusi- 
asm ;  and  this  enthusiasm  is  in  turn  almost  sure  to 
make  teaching  successful. 

6.  Classification  Cultivates  Attention. — Pupils  reciting 
in  groups  or  classes  find  an  incentive  to  closer  attention 
in  the  fact  that  their  work  is  likely  to  be  criticised. 
They  become  attentive  also,  because  they  are  desirous 
of  criticising  the  errors  of  others;  and,  in  general,  the 
desire  to  surpass  their  fellows  will  assist  in  leading  them 
to  giv^e  close  attention  to  the  preparation  as  well  as  to 
the  recitation  of  the  lesson. 

Principles  of  Classification. 

Certain  principles  govern  the  classification  of  pupils 
in  all  kinds  of  schools.     Among  these  are — 

1 .  Age  and  ScholarsMp.— These  are  the  chief  criteria 
for  determining  the  class  which  a  pupil  should  enter. 
In  general,  scholai'ship  ought  to  have  most  weight  in 
determining  the  classification,  but  it  is  often  best  to  put 


SCHOOL    ORGANIZATION.  69 

an  older  pupil  who  is  backward  in  scholarship  with 
those  near  his  own  age,  even  though  thej  are  in  advance 
of  him,  that  he  may  not  be  discouraged.  Older  pupils 
sometimes  feel  keenly  the  embarrassment  of  being 
classed  with  those  much  younger  than  themselves,  and 
whenever  it  is  possible  such  classification  should  be 
avoided. 

2.  Advancement. — Care  should  be  taken  to  adapt  the 
classification  to  the  advancement  of  the  pupil.  If 
classed  too  low,  he  is  apt  to  become  careless  and  indo- 
lent; if  too  high,  he  may  be  discouraged  in  finding 
himself  unable  to  keep  pace  with  his  classmates. 
Strong,  healthy  pupils  may,  as  a  general  thing,  be 
classed  higher  tlian  the  more  delicate,  because  capable 
of  harder  work  and  greater  endurance. 

3.  Average  Ability. — Care  should  be  taken  to  classify 
according  to  tlie  average  ability  of  the  child.  Pupils 
are  rarely  found  to  be  equally  advanced  in  all  branches. 
Some  who  are  well  advanced  in  arithmetic  are  deficient 
in  language,  while  others  well  advanced  in  language  or 
geography  will  be  found  deficient  in  mathematics.  The 
average  ability  in  all  these  branches  should  be  the  basis 
of  classification.  It  is  always  best  to  have  pupils  give 
close  attention  to  those  studies  in  which  they  are  most 
deficient,  that  the  culture  they  receive  may  be  as  sym- 
metrical as  possible. 

4.  The  Standard  of  Classification. — No  definite  rule 
can  be  given  as  to  what  branches  should  be  made  the 
standard  of  classification.  Reading  is  an  unsafe  stand- 
ard, for  the  reason  that  those  who  have  had  the  advan- 
tage of  good  libraries,  children's  magazines,  and  news- 
papers at  home,  and  who  have  read  much  silently,  will 


70  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

be  found  much  better  readers  than  those  not  enjoying 
these  advantages,  though  probably  not  any  farther  ad- 
vanced in  the  usual  school  studies  tiian  others  of  their 
own  age.  Arithmetic  is  probably  the  safest  branch  on 
which  to  base  classification,  for  the  reason  that  deficiency 
in  any  ether  branch  may  be  remedied,  but  deficiency  or 
backwardness  in  arithmetic  is  difficult  to  overcome,  and 
it  often  greatly  interferes  with  the  pupil's  progress  in 
other  studies. 

5.  The  Number  of  Classes. — The  number  of  classes  in 
graded  schools  will  be  governed  by  the  closeness  of  the 
grading  and  the  number  of  grades.  Usually,  two  classes, 
or  at  most  three,  will  be  found  sufficient.  In  ungraded 
schools  the  number  of  classes  ought  not  to  exceed  five, 
and  in  many  schools  the  number  might  profitably  be 
limited  to  four.  This  of  course  supposes  that  all  the 
members  of  a  class  pursue  the  various  studies  of  that 
class,  unless  for  some  important  reason  they  be  excused. 
Those  in  the  lower  classes  will  have  fewer  studies  than 
those  more  advanced,  so  that  there  will  not  be  the  max- 
imum number  of  classes  in  each  branch  of  study. 

6.  The  Size  of  the  Classes. — The  size  of  the  classes  also 
will  be  determined  somewhat  by  the  size  of  the  school. 
Medium-sized  classes  in  public  schools  are  best.  Where 
it  is  possible  classes  should  contain  from  ten  to  twenty 
pupils  each.  In  primary  studies  a  smaller  class  is  not 
objectionable,  as  the  attention  of  the  younger  children 
is  more  liable  to  wander,  and  with  them  the  larger  the 
class  the  more  difficult  the  task  of  holding  the  attention. 
The  class  should  never  be  so  large  that  but  a  portion  can 
recite  each  day.  If  possi ble,  every  pupil  should  be  reached 
during  every  recitation. 


SCHOOL   ORGANIZATION.  71 


Suggestions. 

The  following  suggestions  will  be  found  useful  In  class- 
ifying pupils: 

1.  Adopt  the  Classification  of  your  Predecessor  as  a  Tem- 
porary Classiflcation. — This  will  furnish  the  basis  to  build 
upon,  and  you  will  avoid  criticism  and  difficulties  in  the 
beginning. 

2.  Let  it  be  Known  that  your  First  Classification  is  Tem- 
porary.— Pupils  will  then  be  less  dissatisfied  when  removed 
from  one  class  to  another. 

3.  Do  not  Classify  too  High. — One  of  the  mistakes  of 
ambitious  students  and  misguided  parents  is  that  of  de- 
siring to  advance  too  rapidly.  Pupils  belonging  properly 
in  the  Third  or  the  Fourth  Reader  should  not  be  pro- 
moted to  the  Fifth  until  they  are  fully  prepared.  This 
interferes  with  progress,  and  gives  the  pupil  a  mere  smat- 
tering of  knowledge. 

4.  Avoid  Conflicts  with  both  Pupils  and  Parents. — Rat  her 
let  pu])ils  be  classified  too  high  at  first  than  awaken  the  op- 
position of  both  themselves  and  their  parents.  The  pupils 
will  see  their  mistake  in  the  daily  recitation,  and  usually 
they  will  be  found  willing  after  a  short  time  to  take  their 
proper  places. 

5.  When  Making  the  Permanent  Classiflcation,  Let  it  be 
on  Merit. — If  parents  or  pupils  object,  explain  to  them 
and  convince  them  of  their  mistake. 

6.  Do  not  Compel  Pupils  to  Pursue  Studies  to  which  their 
Parents  Object. — It  is  true  you  have  the  right  to  enforce 
such  compulsion,  but  it  is  neither  wise  nor  necessary  to 
do  so  unless  the  omission  of  such  study  interferes  ma- 
terially with  the  progress  of  the  pupil  in  other  branches. 


72  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

The  wise  plan  is  to  remove  the  difficulty  by  convincing 
the  paront  of  his  error. 

7.  Do  not  Give  too  many  Studies. — The  tendency  among 
pnpHs  is  to  undertake  the  study  of  more  branches  than 
they  can  pursue  profitably.  The  teacher  should  so  con- 
struct his  programme  as  to  avoid  this,  and  permit  the 
pupils  to  study  oidy  as  many  branches  as  they  can  study 
well.     More  than  this  will  defeat  the  end  of  study. 

8.  Let  the  Studies  be  such  as  will  Give  Variety. — This 
will  secure  symmetrical  culture  and  keep  up  interest.  The 
pupil  will  also  be  able  to  do  more  work  with  less  fatigue, 
just  as  the  exercise  of  all  the  muscles  will  cause  less 
fatigue  than  the  continued  exercise  of  a  single  set. 

2.  Programme. 

Among  the  essentials  of  good  scliool  mangement  is  a 
a  well-arranged  programme.  To  make  provision  for  all 
the  classes,  assigning  to  each  its  proper  place  and  fixing 
for  each  its  proper  limit  of  time  in  recitation,  is  a  work 
of  some  difficulty.  A  good  ])rogramme  should  have  the 
following  charaderistioH : 

1.  A  Definite  Period  must  be  fixed  for  each  class-recita- 
tion, for  every  intermission,  for  all  interruptions,  and  for 
study.  All  these  must  have  their  place,  that  the  school 
work  may  be  well  done. 

2.  The  Length  of  the  Recitations  nuist  be  arranged 
according  to  the  size  of  the  school  and  the  number  of 
classes.  The  shortest  time  should  be  given  to  the  smaller 
pupils,  and  the  longest  to  those  more  advanced. 

3.  The  Frequency  of  Recitations  must  be  provided  for. 
The  primary  pupils  will  need  several  recitations  a  day  in 
most  of  the  branches,  in  order  to  keep  them  interested  as 


SCHOOL,    ORGANIZATION.  73 

well  as  busy,  wliile  the  more  advanced  pupils  will  need 
but  a  single  recitation  in  each  branch.  Some  of  tlie 
liigher  branches  may  even  have  recitations  on  alternate 
days,  but  it  Avill  be  found  difficult  to  keep  up  a  proper 
degree  of  interest  where  the  recitations  are  not  heard 
daily. 

4.  All  Studies  should  Have  their  Proportionate  Share  of 
Attention. — Neither  arithmetic  nor  any  other  hobby  of 
teacher  should  be  permitted  to  occupy  a  fourth  or  a 
third  of  the  time,  leaving  the  remainder  to  be  divided 
among  a  half  dozen  other  studies. 

5.  All  Grades  of  Pupils  must  be  Provided  for. — The 
smaller  as  well  as  the  larger  must  receive  due  attention 
in  class-recitation,  and  a  just  proportion  of  time  should 
be  allotted  to  each  in  the  programme. 

6.  Studies  to  be  Prepared  in  School  should  not  be  Re- 
cited among  the  First. — In  general  it  will  be  found  most 
convenient  to  prepare  all  mathematical  work  in  school. 
Classes  in  arithmetic  should  not,  therefore,  be  among  the 
first  to  recite  in  the  morning.  The  first  recitations  of  the 
day  should  be  either  the  lessons  prepared  at  home  in  the 
evening  or  the  classes  in  reading. 

7.  The  School-day  should  not  Close  with  severe  Mental 
Labor. — Classes  in  penmanshij),  drawing,  spelling,  or 
vocal  music  should  end  the  day's  work.  Class  exercises 
needing  steady  nerves,  such  as  writing  or  drawing, 
ought  not  to  follow  a  recess  or  any  time  of  physical 
exertion. 

8.  The  Programme  must  Provide  a  Time  for  General 
Business. — The  teacher  will  frequently  have  remarks  to 
make  to  the  school,  reproof  may  need  to  be  administered, 
or  cautions  may  need  to  be  given.     None  of  these  ought 


74  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

to  interfere  with  the  recitations  of  the  day.  A  special 
time,  therefore,  for  this  general  business  should  be  pro- 
vided in  the  programme, 

9.  The  Programme  should  Provide  for  all  the  School 
Work.— Let  it  be  remembered  that  recesses  are  for  rest 
and  recreation.  Neither  the  pupils  nor  the  teacher 
should  be  employed  in  work  at  that  time.  Both  need 
the  recess.  Nor  should  recitations  be  heard  after  school. 
To  detain  pupils  beyond  the  regular  school  hours  for  the 
recitation  of  lessons  is  both  cruel  and  unwise. 

Advantages  of  a  Good  Programme. 

The  chief  advantages  of  a  well-arranged  programme 
are  the  following : 

1.  It  Leads  to  Regular  Habits  of  Study. — Study  be- 
comes systematized,  and  students  learn  to  do  their  work 
according  to  a  plan. 

2.  It  Makes  Systematic  Teachers, — A  fixed  plan  will 
make  the  teacher  systematic  in  his  work,  and  the  duties 
of  the  school  will  be  performed  with  less  friction  and 
greater  regularity. 

3.  It  Saves  Time. — No  time  is  wasted  in  attempting  to 
recite  half-prepared  lessons.  The  pupils,  knowing  the 
time  when  they  will  be  expected  to  recite,  are  prepared 
and  ready. 

4.  It  Makes  Systematic  Pupils. — It  not  only  leads  to 
regular  habits  of  study,  but  it  makes  pupils  regular  and 
systematic  also  in  all  their  other  work  and  in  their  habits 
of  life. 

5.  It  is  an  Aid  to  Systematic  Orgauization. — Each  new 
teacher  is  enabkxl  by  the  programme  of  his  predecessor 
to  take  up  the  work  just  where  it  wiis  left  at  the  close 


SCHOOL   ORGANIZATION. 


75 


of  the  preceding  term,  and  carry  it  on  without  embar- 
rassment or  loss  of  time. 

6.  It  Makes  School  Work  Effective. — No  time  is  lost. 
Pupils  know  not  only  when  they  will  recite,  but  also 
Avhen  lessons  may  be  prepared  to  the  best  advantage. 
The  development  is  harmonious,  and  all  jarring  and 
discord  of  conflicting  classes  are  avoided. 

In  all  cases  when  a  new  programme  is  to  be  used,  it  is 
best  to  post  it  in  some  conspicuous  place  where  the  pupils 
may  consult  it. 

Probably  no  programme  can  be  arranged  to  suit  all 
classes  of  schools,  but  the  two  following  are  offered  as  a 
basis  on  Avhich  to  work.  The  first  is  designed  for  a 
school  of  four  classes,  and  the  second  for  a  school  of 
five.  Either  may  be  modified  to  suit  the  requirements 
of  the  school  in  which  it  is  used.  In  the  following 
model  for  a  programme  the  first  column  denotes  the 
time  for  the  opening  and  the  close  of  each  recitation  ; 
the  second,  the  class  which  is  to  recite ;  and  the  third, 
the  branch  of  study  in  which  the  recitation  is  to  be 
conducted : 

PKOGRAMME. 


Forenoon. 


9.00 
9.10 
9.20 
9.35 
9..O0 
10.10 
10.25 
10.40 
10.5.0 
11.2.') 
11. .50 
12.00 


Opening  Exercises 

Reading  and  Spelling.... 

Primary  Geography 

Primary  Geography 

History  or  Geography. 

Language  Lessons 

Recess 

Language  Lessons 

Language  Lessons 

Grammar 

Numbers 

Noon  Recess 


Aftermoon. 


Roll-Call,  etc. 

Reading  and  Spelling. 

Aritlinietic. 

Arithmetic. 

Arithmetic. 

Writing  and  Drawing. 

Recess. 

Object-Lessons  or  Reading. 

Reading  and  Spelling. 

Reading  and  Spelling. 

Reading  and  Spelling. 

General  Exercises. 

Dismission. 


76 


S(;UOOL   MANAGEMENT. 


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SCHOOL   ORGANIZATION.  77 

3.  School  Signals. 

A  system  of  school  signals,  if  not  too  complex  or  cum- 
bersome, will  tend  to  systematize  the  school  work  and  save 
muJi  time.  It  will  also  be  productive  of  good  order  and 
tend  to  make  pupils  methodical. 

The  following  prmciples  should  govern  a  code  of 
signals : 

1.  The  Signals  should  be  Few  in  Number. — Tiie  tend- 
ency is  to  use  too  many  signals,  and  the  result  is  con- 
fusion. Many  teachers  themselves  make  their  scliool 
noisy  by  the  too  frequent  use  of  the  bell  or  by  having 
too  complicated  a  system  of  signals.  But  few  signals, 
and  only  those  which  are  readily  understood,  should  be 
adopted. 

2.  Each  Signal  should  be  Necessitated  by  the  School 
Work. — All  arbitrary  signals,  or  those  used  only  for 
display,  should  be  avoided. 

3.  Each  Signal  should  be  Significant. — Every  signal 
should  have  its  definite  meaning,  and  should  be  used 
for  the  same  movement  or  request,  without  variation. 

4.  Promptness  in  Obeying  Signals  is  Important. — Unless 
pupils  be  trained  to  obey  each  signal  promptly,  the  system 
is  useless.  The  movements  should  also  be  made  quietly 
as  well  as  promptly. 

5.  The  Signals  should  be  Well  Understood. — Pupils 
should  know  definitely  what  is  required  of  them,  and 
they  should  in  time  become  so  well  acquainted  with  the 
code  that  they  act  almost  automatically  in  response  to  any 
signal  made. 

The  following  simple  code  of  signals  will  be  found 
useful ; 


78  SCHOOL.   MANAGJiMENT. 

I.  In  Caliing  School. 
In  calling  school,  either  in  the  morning  or  after  any 
of  the  recesses,  two  signals  only  are  necessary : 

1.  The  ringing  of  a  bell  to  call  pupils  in; 

2.  A  tap  of  the  bell  or  a  word  to  call  them  to  order 
preparatory  to  beginning  work. 

n.  In  Calling  Classes. 

In  calling  classes  to  recite  three  signals  are  sufficient : 

1.  The  teacher's  voice  or  a  tap  of  the  bell  calling  for 
attention ; 

2.  A  tap  of  the  bell  for  the  class  to  rise ; 

3.  A  taji  of  the  bell  for  pupils  to  pass  to  the  recitation- 
scats. 

III.  In  Dismissing  Classes. 

In  dismissing  classes  but  two  signals  are  needed : 

1.  A  tap  of  the  bell  for  pupils  to  rise  and  face  their 
desks ; 

2.  A  tap  of  the  bell  for  the  pupils  to  pass  to  their 
seats,  or,  if  the  class  be  not  too  large,  it  may  be  dismissed 
without  any  signal  whatever. 

rv.  In  Dismissing  School. 
In  dismissing  school  four  signals  may  be  used  : 

1.  "Attention  !"  called  by  the  teacher; 

2.  A  tap  of  the  bell  for  the  pupils  to  arrange  desks ; 

3.  A  tap  of  the  bell  for  the  pupils  to  rise; 

4.  A  tap  of  the  bell  for  the  pupils  to  march  out  by 
sections. 

If  no  means  of  having  your  pupils  march  to  music  be 
at  hand,  either  the  teacher  or  one  of  the  pupils  may  count 


SCHOOL    ORGANIZATION.  79 

one,  two — one,  two,  to  ordinaiy  march-time,  and  dismiss 
the  children  in  this  way.    Tht  pupils  will  enjoy  the  march. 


4.  Hand  Sigiials. 

Special  signals  may  be  used  by  jiupils  when  desirous 
of  speaking  to  the  teacher  or  to  one  another ;  also  when 
desirous  of  asking  or  answering  questions  in  class. 

Thechief  class-signal  is  thatof  raising  the  hand — either, 
'±.  To  express  a  willingness  to  answer;  2.  To  criticise  or 
correct;  or,  3.  To  ask  a  question. 

When  a  pupil  is  reciting  no  one  should  be  permitted 
to  attract  attention  or  confuse  him  by  raising  the  hand, 
and  particularly  the  snapping  of  fingers  should  never  be 
tolerated.  Many  a  pupil  has  been  thoroughly  confused 
by  the  ill  manners  or  the  thoughtlessness  of  a  classmate 
who  raised  his  hand  or  snapped  his  fingers  while  the 
former  was  reciting. 

Each  pupil  should  be  held  responsible  for  every  an- 
swer. Therefore,  if  a  mistake  is  made  all  the  pupils 
who  noticed  it  should  raise  the  hand  when  criticism  is 
called  for.  As  soon  as  the  teacher  designates  one  to 
make  answer  or  criticise,  the  other  hands  should  be 
dropped. 

Frequently,  pupils  may  have  occasion  to  ask  questions 
while  at  their  seats.  In  such  cases  the  pupil  should  raise 
his  hand  before  speaking,  and  should  remain  quiet  until 
the  teacher  recognizes  the  signal  and  permits  him  to  speak. 
Only  in  extreme  cases  should  the  teacher  permit  any  one 
to  raise  the  hand  while  a  class  is  on  the  floor  reciting. 
While  pupils  are  reciting  the  teacher's  whole  attention 
ohould    be    given    to    the    recitation,   and    interruptions 


80  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

should    be    postponed    until  a  change  of    classes    takes 

place. 

Suggestions. 

1.  Avoid  calling  your  pupils  to  class  without  any 
system. 

2.  Avoid  calling  out  your  pupils  to  class  one  by  one 
as  you  name  the  numbers — first,  second,  etc. 

3.  Avoid  permitting  your  pupils  to  scramble  in  a  dis- 
orderly Avay  to  the  class  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a 
clioice  seat  or  a  desirable  position. 

4.  Avoid  permitting  your  pupils  to  run  to  their  seats 
or  to  class. 

5.  Avoid  permitting  your  pupils  to  crowd  one  another. 

5.  The  Opening  and  the  Closing  of  the  School. 

The  simplest  and  least  showy  plans  of  opening  school 
are  generally  the  best.  The  following  plan  has  been  well 
tested  and  found  successful : 

Singing. — After  the  pupils  have  assembled,  the  teacher, 
or,  if  he  is  not  a  good  singer,  one  of  the  pupils,  leads  the 
school  in  an  appropriate  hymn  or  song,  in  which  all  join. 
This  will  cheer  up  the  children  and  put  them  in  a  good 
humor  for  the  day's  work. 

Scripture  Reading. — In  communities  where  no  serious 
objections  are  raised  the  singing  should  be  followed  by 
the  reading  of  a  selection  from  the  Bible,  without  note 
or  comment.  Should  there  be  any  pupils  in  the  school 
whose  parents  object  to  having  their  children  present 
when  the  Bible  is  being  read,  these  should  of  course 
be  excused. 

Prayer. — Nothing  seems  more  appropriate  than  that 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  repeated  in  concert  or  chanted  by 


SCHOOL   ORGANIZATION.  81 

the  whole  school,  should  form  a  part  of  the  opening 
exercises. 

Roll-CaU. — Following  the  foregoing  exercises  should 
come  roll-call.  This  need  occupy  but  a  short  time.  A 
convenient  plan  is  that  of  having  each  pupil  numbered, 
from  one  upward.  When  ready  the  teacher  announces, 
Roll!  and  the  pupils,  beginning  with  the  first,  respond 
one,  two,  three,  four,  etc.  The  numbers  failing  to  respond 
may  be  placed  on  the  blackboard,  where  mistakes  may  be 
corrected.  From  this  corrected  list  the  teacher  is  enabled 
to  record  both  his  tardy  pupils  and  his  absentees. 

Intelligence  Class. — Immediately  following  roll-call  the 
teacher  may  hold  a  short  intelligence  meeting  of  the  whole 
school.  In  this  exercise  important  items  of  news  may  be 
communicated  by  such  of  the  pupils  as  may  have  gleaned 
any;  and  to  these  should  be  added  such  as  the  teacher 
may  have  gleaned  since  the  preceding  day.  When  news 
is  scarce  the  reading  of  a  short  but  interesting  story  will 
serve  to  attract  the  pupils  and  bring  them  to  school  in 
good  time. 

The  Afternoon  Session  may  be  opened  with  singing,  fol- 
lowed with  roll-call,  as  at  the  morning  session,  but  omit- 
ting the  remaining  portion  of  the  morning  exercises. 

The  Manner  of  Closiag  School  is  a  matter  of  importance. 
The  day's  work  having  been  finished,  it  is  highly  import- 
ant that  every  one  leave  the  school-room  in  the  best  of 
spirits.  Let  the  teacher  start  a  cheerful  song,  and  have 
all  his  pupils  join.  Make  the  exercise  such  that  every 
pupil  may  leave  the  school  with  the  feeling  that  it  is 
a  pleasant  place,  and  with  a  hearty  wish  to  return  on 
the  morrow.  At  the  close  of  the  song  a  tap  of  the  bell 
or  the  teacher's  voice  will  call  the  pupils  to  attention,  and 
6 


82  sciroor.  management. 

they  may  tlien  be  dismissed  according  to  tlie  signals  here- 
tofore suggested. 

6.  Seating. 

1.  Sex  in  Seating.— Discipline  is  sometimes  secured  by 
scatino-  the  two  sexes  in  alternate  rows  or  sections,  but  the 
inexperienced  teacher  will  find  the  plan  of  placing  the 
girls  on  one  side  of  the  room  and  the  boys  (m  the  other 
much  the  safest  and  the  least  likely  to  cause  him  annoy- 
ance. The  policy  of  seating  boys  and  girls  promiscuously 
at  any  time  while  engaged  in  school  work,  unless  it  be  in 
recitation,  is  a  doubtful  one. 

2.  The  Right  to  Change  Seats. — The  teacher  should  at 
all  times  reserve  the  right  to  re-seat  pupils.  When  a 
pupil  becomes  talkative  or  troublesome  to  his  neighbors, 
he  should  be  removed  at  once  to  a  separate  seat  if  possi- 
ble. Various  reasons  may  exist  w^hy  pupils  should  be 
removed  from  one  seat  to  another,  and  the  teacher  alone 
has  the  right  to  make  the  change. 

3.  Discipline  by  Seating. — The  teacher  may  often  avoid 
difficulties  in  discipline  by  seating  properly.  As  far  as 
possible,  one  pupil  only  should  be  permitted  to  occupy  a 
desk.  Two  talkative  })upils  should  not  be  seated  together. 
The  weak  should  be  placed  with  the  strong.  Troublesome 
pupils  should  be  placed  where  they  can  cause  the  least  an- 
noyance. All  seating  should  be  so  arranged  *as  to  secure 
the  best  possible  order. 

7.  Recesses. 

Times  for  recreation  are  quite  as  necessary  in  the  school 
day  as  are  times  for  labor.  Long-continued  work  will  ac- 
complish less  and  tire  more  than  worlc  judiciously  inter- 
Bpersed  with  play. 


SCHOOL   ORGANIZATION.  83 

1  The  Number  of  Recesses. — If  possible,  two  short  re- 
cesses of  ten  miimtes  each  should  be  taken  each  half  day. 
If  tliis  cannot  be  done,  then  one  of  at  least  fifteen  min- 
utes should  be  substituted,  and  all  should  be  permitted  to 
enjoy  it.  The  teacher's  discipline  ought  not  to  be  so  weak 
that  he  finds  it  necessary  at  any  time  to  keep  pupils  in 
during  the  play-hour. 

2.  The  Teacher  at  Recess. — The  teacher  needs  the  recre- 
ation afforded  by  recess  quite  as  much  as  the  pupils  do. 
He  should  supervise  the  play  of  his  pupils.  It  will 
cheer  him  up,  and  fit  him  to  do  the  work  of  the  school- 
room all  the  better  because  of  the  recreation. 

3.  Pupils  and  Teachers  should  Associate  at  Recess. — The 
teacher  should  associate  with  his  pupils  during  recess,  and 
join  in  pleasant  conversation  with  them.  He  has  no 
higher  duty  than  that  of  making  school  pleasant  to 
those  placed  in  his  care.  His  example  as  the  com{)anion 
and  guide  of  his  pupils  should  always  be  worthy  of  im- 
itation. The  wise  teacher  often  exerts  quite  as  powerful 
an  influence  on  the  play-ground  as  in  the  school-room. 

4.  Merruption  Recesses, — Provision  should  be  made 
for  interruptions.  There  should  be  some  fixed  period, 
as  the  time  for  changing  classes,  when  two  minutes,  or 
as  much  time  as  may  be  necessary,  may  be  set  apart  for, 
the  purpose  of  allowing  pupils  to  ask  questions,  receive 
permission  to  leave  their  seats,  or  take  a  short  rest. 

5.  Irregular  Recesses. — Now  and  then  the  teacher  will 
find  that  with  his  most  skillful  efforts  order  cannot  be 
preserved.  Confusion  seems  to  reign  supreme.  The 
very  atmosphere  seems  to  be  saturated  with  anarchy  and 
discord.  Any  effort  to  make  the  discipline  more  rigid 
seems  only  to  make  the  confusion  worse.     Scolding  and 


84  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

\vlii]>piiig  serve  only  to  increase  the  restlessness  and 
nervousness.  What  shall  the  teacher  do?  Let  him  give 
the  pupils  some  recreation,  some  rest,  and  enough  of  it 
to  overcome  the  effects  of  the  disturbance.  Occasionally 
stopping  all  the  regular  exercises  and  joining  in  a  calis- 
thenic  drill  or  a  cheerful  song  or  two  will  be  all  that  is 
necessary  to  bring  every  one  under  perfect  control  again. 
Sometimes  a  five-raiaute  recess  will  secure  the  same  re- 
sult, and  bring  order  out  of  confusion. 


CHi^PTER   III. 
School  Work. 

The  chief  work  of  the  school,  so  far  as  pupils  are  con- 
cerned, is  study.  Education  is  not  a  pouring-in  process, 
in  which  the  pupil  is  a  mere  passive  receiver.  The  mind 
needs  culture,  and  it  receives  its  best  culture  through  study. 
Many  questions  arise  here :  What  are  the  objects  of  study? 
How  may  pupils  be  trained  to  study?  How  may  habits 
of  study  be  inculcated  ?  What  are  proper  incentives  to 
study  ? 

I.  Study. 
1.  The  Objects  of  Study. 

The  chief  end  of  education  is  development  in  the  full- 
est sense  of  the  term — intellectual,  moral,  and  physical. 
One  man  is  better  educated  than  another  only  so  far  as  his 
powers  are  more  fully  developed  and  under  better  control. 

The  chief  object  of  study  is  Discipline  or  Training. 
To  this  may  be  added  the  subordinate  ends  of  study — 
Knowledge,  Expertness,  Moral  Culture,  Aspiration. 

1.  Discipline. — All  man's  powers,  whether  mental, 
moral,  or  physical,  need  culture  and  training  in  order 
that  they  may  be  strengthened  and  receive  the  highest 
possible  development.  Discipline  is  the  true  end  of 
study.  An  undisciplined  mind  works  at  a  disadvaatage, 
and  accomplishes   but  little.      The    knowledge   gained 

85 


86  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

durino-  one's  school  life  is  of  much  less  importance  tlian 

o 

the  systematic  training  which  the  mind  acquires  under 
the  wise  guidance  of  a  teacher  who  understands  the  true 
enl  of  education,  and  how  best  to  train  and  develop  the 
natural  powers  of  both  mind  and  body  w^ith  which  God 
has  endowed  the  child. 

TraiDlng  to  Think  is  the  most  important  work  that 
the  teacher  has  to  perform.  Thinking  must  be  sys- 
tematic. The  pupil  must  be  made  critical  and  obser- 
vant; his  attention  must  be  undivided;  his  memory 
must  be  exact;  his  judgment  must  be  clear.  He  must 
be  trained  to  see  quickly,  exactly,  and  sharply.  The 
branches  tauglit  must  be  used  to  give  him  self-discipline 
and  self-development. 

The  Pupil  must  be  Tauglit  How  to  Study.— The  chief 
work  of  the  teacher  is  to  guide  and  direct  the  pupil  in 
his  efforts.  The  efficient  teacher  never  does  the  work 
of  the  pu]>ils  for  them.  Patient  efforts  must  be  made 
by  the  teacher  to  show  his  pupils  how  to  study  the  va- 
rious branches  in  a  systematic  way,  so  as  to  give  the 
best  culture  to  the  mental  powers.  It  is  a  serious  mis- 
take to  permit  pupils  to  pursue  their  studies  in  an  un- 
systematic manner.  Energy  is  thus  wasted  and  time  lost. 
An  occasional  hint  even  as  to  what  part  of  a  paragraph 
is  important,  and  what  may  be  omitted  without  disad- 
vantage to  the  student,  will  prove  valuable.  But  the 
teacher  can  do  better  than  this  by  watching  constantly, 
and  directing  the  pupil  how  to  pursue  each  study  in 
such  a  way  as  to  afford  the  best  mental  development. 

2.  The  Acquisition  of  Knowledge.— This  is  also  one 
of  the  objects  of  study.     Knowledge  is  as  essential  to 


SCHOOL    WORK.  87 

tlie  miud  as  is  food  to  the  process  of  physical  growth, 
but  it  shouH  never  be  made  the  chief  end  of  study. 
The  mind  craves  knowledge  as  the  stomach  craves  food, 
but  in  either  case  the  ultimate  end  is  development.  The 
l)hysical  organs  assimilate  the  food,  and  it  is  made  to 
supply  the  physical  loss  and  strengthen  the  body.  The 
mind  assimilates  knowledge,  and  the  mental  powers  sys- 
tematize it  and  adapt  it  to  the  wants  of  mental  develo])- 
ment. 

The  great  error  in  teaching  is,  that  the  acquisition  of 
facts  and  principles  is  the  chief  objecfc  of  education. 
Even  teachers  sometimes  make  no  distinction  between 
knowledge  and  education.  A  man  may  have  a  great 
fund  of  knowledge,  and  yet  be  but  indifferently  edu- 
cated. His  knowledge  may  be  of  little  avail  to  him, 
because  of  his  lack  of  power  to  use  or  apply  it.  Edu- 
cation is  not  the  mere  process  of  communicating  known 
facts.  Knowledge  is  a  means  of  education  rather  than 
an  end. 

3.  Expertness. — Expertness  is  also  an  end  of  study. 
Knowledge  which  we  cannot  apply  is  of  little  value. 
The  man  who  is  unable  to  make  his  knowledge  available 
has  but  little  force  in  the  community.  The  mind  of  the 
educated  man  is  better  disciplined,  and  therefore  better 
able  to  do  the  world's  work.  The  educated  man  is  a 
power  which  makes  itself  felt,  not  only  in  business,  but 
also  \n  society.  True  education  gives  one  that  efficiency 
which  makes  him  a  leader  in  everything  that  tends  to 
elevate  his  fellow-man. 

A  False  Object. — The  expertness  spoken  of  here  is 
not  that  efficiency  whicli  one  acquires  in  preparing  him- 


S8  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

self  to  accumulate  wealth.  This,  it  is  true,  is  by  many 
considered  the  jn-ime  object  of  all  education.  The  abil- 
ity to  drive  sharp  bargains,  to  make  money,  etc.,  is  to 
Bonae  extent  acquired  by  intellectual  training,  but  it 
should  not  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  objects  of  study. 
The  object  of  education  is  not  to  assist  one  to  escape 
from  labor,  but  rather  to  make  his  labor  skillful.  An 
ignorant  man  works  like  a  machine,  without  thought 
and  without  improvement,  but  educated  labor  is  skilled 
labor,  and  therefore  intelligent. 

4.  Moral  Culture. — This  is  also  an  end  of  study. 
Fichte  says :  "  The  ultimate  end  of  all  education  is  to 
lead  men  and  human  society  toward  their  highest  moral 
destiny.  Education  must  be  based  not  on  utilitarian 
considerations,  but  purely  on  the  considerations  of  hu- 
manity." Character-building  is  one  of  the  chief  aims 
of  all  education,  and  therefore  of  study.  The  discipline 
which  produces  a  well-balanced  miud  will  have  its  due 
effect  in  giving  proper  moral  culture. 

5.  Aspipation. — Study  gives  purer  ideals.  Nothing 
is  more  effective  in  awakening  within  the  student  those 
noble  aspirations  to  a  higher  life  than  the  examples  of 
the  great  and  the  good  with  which  he  comes  in  contact 
in  his  daily  study.  He  builds  imaginary  castles,  it  may 
be,  but  the  work  docs  him  good,  even  though  they  do 
^vanish  into  thin  air"  before  the  rude  breezes  of  a 
practical,  every-day  life.  He  sets  for  himself  a  high 
mark,  and,  even  though  he  may  be  powerless  to  reach 
it,  his  efforts  lift  him  above  the  plane  he  occupied  before, 
and  give  him  a  broader  viewof  life  and  his  relation  to 


SCHOOL    WORK.  89 

the  world.  His  contemplation  of  these  ideals  gives  a 
charm  to  his  life  which  ennobles  him,  and  helps  him  to 
appreciate  more  fully  his  relations  to  God  and  humanity. 

2.  Conditions  for  Snccessful  Study. 

Effective  study  requires  proper  conditions  and  sur- 
roundings. The  best  work  can  be  done  only  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances.  These  have  been  par- 
tially discussed  in  treating  of  School-Houses  and  School- 
Furniture.    The  following  conditions  also  are  important: 

1.  Bodily  Health  and  Comfort. — It  is  not  only  necessary 
that  the  pupil  have  a  sound  body  to  insure  a  sound  mind, 
but  it  is  necessary  also  that  he  be  comfortable  during 
study-time.  Pure  air  and  correct  hygienic  habits  are 
essential.  The  room  should  be  coaifortably  heated  and 
the  light  properly  modulated.  The  stouiach  should  be 
free  alike  from  the  gnawings  of  hunger  and  the  oi>- 
pressed  feeling  of  too  full  a  meal.  The  head  should 
be  clear  and  free  from  the  effects  of  either  a  cold  or  a 
disordered  stomach.  The  whole  system  should  be  as 
nearly  in  its  normal  condition  as  it  is  possible  to  put  it, 
and  the  teacher  should  see  that  the  child  is  as  comfort- 
able as  may  be. 

2.  Favorable  Surroundings. — It  is  necessary  that  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  pupil  be  such  as  to  induce  study.  The 
room  should  be  pleasant  and  quiet  should  be  preserved. 
The  old-time  method  of  mumbling  aloud  over  the  lessons 
is  an  abomination,  and  ought  to  be  eradicated.  Noise  dur- 
ing study-hours  should  not  be  tolerated.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  suppose  that  students  will  become  so  interested  in  their 
lessons  that  their  attention  is  not  distracted  by  boisterous 
noise  whether  in  class-recitatiwi  or  elsewhere. 


90  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

3.  Regular  Time  for  Study.— This  is  one  of  the  essen- 
tials. The  pupil  who  studies  according  to  a  programme, 
devoting  a  special  time  to  each  branch  pursued,  will  ac- 
complish more  than  he  who  studies  irregularly  as  the 
mood  may  seize  him.  Study  and  rest  should  alternate. 
Short  periods  of  study  for  small  children  are  best.  In- 
deed, short  periods  of  study,  less  than  an  hour  to  each 
branch,  are  best  for  all  pupils. 

4.  Variety  in  Study. — Study  should  not  be  continued 
on  any  branch  for  such  a  length  of  time  as  to  weary  the 
pupil.  The  most  effective  workers  are  they  who  alter- 
nate their  work.  When  tired  of  one  branch  the  pupil 
should  turn  to  another  as  a  rest,  and  when  tired  of  this 
to  still  another,  and  so  on,  thus  keeping  up  his  interest 
and  resting  his  mind  by  the  variety.  Hard  study  will 
do  no  one  harm  if  he  ])ursue  a  systematic  plan  which 
gives  him  sufficient  variety  of  both  study  and  recreation. 

3.  Helps  to  Study. 

The  pupil  who  relies  on  the  textbook  alone  as  his  guide 
in  study  is  apt  to  get  only  a  partial  view  of  the  subject 
he  pursues.  Other  aids  are  necessary  to  make  his  schol- 
arship broad  and  comprehensive.  The  following  are  some 
«f  the  important  aids  to  study : 

1.  Other  Textbooks.— Different  authors  present  subjects 
in  different  lights  and  from  different  standpoints.  The 
pupil  will  find  it  greatly  to  his  advantage,  therefore,  to 
Btady  a  subject  in  various  textlwoks,  using  all  of  them 
to  confirm  the  statements  of  the  author  he  studies  or  gain 
new  views  and  widen  his  field  of  knowledge. 

2.  Reference-Books.— Every  school  should  be  supplied 
with  books  of  reference  covering-  the  school  course  of 


SCHOOL   WORK.  91 

study.  These  should  include  an  unabridged  Dictionary 
and  a  good  Cj'clopffidia  if  possible.  Even  au  abridged 
Cyclopsedia  will  prove  of  great  value  to  both  pupils  and 
teacher.  To  these  should  be  added  a  Pronouncing  Gazet- 
teer, a  Biographical  Dictionary,  and  A^'orks  on  history, 
geography,  science,  and  travel. 

3.  Cabinets. — These  may  be  regarded  in  the  light  of 
objective  helps.  A  cabinet  contribute<l  by  the  industry 
of  the  pupils  will  be  useful.  It  should  contain  speci- 
mens of  the  various  minerals,  metals,  grains,  woods,  leaves, 
grasses,  etc.  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school,  or  it  would 
be  better  still  if  it  contained  specimens  of  all  these  found 
in  the  county.  To  this  cabinet  may  be  added  curious  or 
valuable  specimens  from  different  parts  of  the  world; 
these  will  be  found  to  add  great  interest  and  attractive- 
ness to  the  collection. 

4.  Apparatus. — Good  scliool  apparatus,  including  sets 
of  weights  and  measures,  cubical  blocks  and  other  geo- 
metrical forms,  will  be  found  among  the  most  useful 
helps  to  study. 

4.  IncentiTes  to  Study. 

Pupils  being  surrounded  by  proper  conditions,  and 
having  the  desirable  helps  necessary  to  effective  study, 
it  is  proper  to  state  here  the  incentives  or  motives  which 
should  actuate  them  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge.  These 
incentives  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — proper  incen- 
tives and  unwise  incentives. 

Proper  Incentives  are  such  as  may  at  all  times  be  urged 
upon  pupils  without  danger  of  doing  harm  to  other  mem- 
bers of  the  school.  Tliey  are  suci  as  will  promote  tlie 
welfare  of  each  pupil,  but  never  at  the  expense  or  to 


92  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

the  disadvantage  of  another.     Among  proper  inceutivea 
tlie  most  important  are — 

1.  The  Approbation  of  Conscience. 

2.  The  Approbation  of  the  Teacher. 

3.  The  Approbation  of  Parents  and  Friends. 

4.  The  Desire  of  Acquiring  Knowledge. 

5.  The  Gratification  of  Curiosity. 

6.  The  Pleasure  of  Overcoming  Difficulties. 

7.  The  Attainment  of  an  Honorable  Position  in  School 

8.  The  Hope  of  Success  in  Life. 

9.  The  Approbation  of  Society. 
10.  The  Duty  of  Self-Development. 

1.  The  Approbation  of  Conscience. — The  approval  of 
one's  own  conscience  is  a  strong  incentive  to  proper 
effort,  and  no  less  so  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  than 
in  the  regulation  of  one's  conduct.  We  do  things  be- 
cause we  believe  them  to  be  right,  even  when  we  do  not 
stop  to  question  the  force  of  the  obligation  which  impels 
us  forward.  It  is  always  safe,  therefore,  for  the  teacher 
to  appeal  to  the  conscience  of  the  child  as  a  motive  in 
urging  him  to  diligent  study. 

2.  The  Approbation  of  the  Teacher.— The  pupil  who  does 
not  desire  to  please  the  teacher,  or  who  is  not  willing  to 
do  so,  nmst  have  sunk  to  a  low  level  indeed,  and  the 
teacher  who  does  not  command  the  respect  and  esteem 
of  his  pupils  can  certainly  never  exert  a  healthful  in- 
fluence over  his  school.  We  all  desire  the  approbation 
of  those  for  whom  we  labor,  and  a  word  of  cheer  or 
Kindness  from  them  will  never  fail  to  act  as  an  incentive 
to  more  earnest  effort. 


SCHOOL   WORK.  93 

The  teacher  who  desires  to  secure  the  best  work  from 
his  pupils  must  appreciate  their  work  and  give  a  word 
of  praise  where  due.  The  oft-quoted  rule,  "  Corauiend 
where  you  can,  aud  censure  only  where  you  must/'  is 
a  good  one  and  a  safe  one  to  follow,  both  in  the  school- 
room and  out  of  it.  The  teacher  who  is  pleased  with 
nothing,  who  is  given  to  faultfinding  or  scolding  in- 
stead of  commendation,  has  passed  his  period  of  use- 
fulness, and  is  no  longer  competent  to  do  the  teacher's 
Avork. 

Indiscriminate  praise,  however,  is  not  to  be  employed. 
The  truthful  teacher  will  not  indulge  in  it.  A  kindly 
look  or  an  approving  nod  when  a  pupil  has  done  work 
deserving  the  attention  and  commendation  of  the  teacher 
will  always  be  ajipreciated  by  the  child,  and  it  will 
always  have  its  due  influence  in  urging  him  to  greater 
diligence. 

3.  The  Approbation  of  Parents  and  Friends. — The 
approbation  of  the  parents  and  the  friends  of  the  pupil 
is  also  a  proper  incentive  to  study.  Few  parents,  in- 
deed, have  so  little  love  for  their  children  that  they  are 
not  anxious  for  them  to  succeed ;  and  there  are  few  chil- 
dren who  are  not  anxious  to  win  the  commendation  of 
both  their  parents  and  their  friends  for  the  excellence 
of  their  school  work.  The  teacher  will  often  be  able 
to  promote  study  by  inviting  the  parents  of  pupils 
to  visit  the  school  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  its 
work. 

4.  The  Desire  of  Acquiring  Knowledge. — This  is  one 
of  the  strongest  incentives   to  study.     The  desire   for 


94  SCHOOL    MANAGEMEJS'T. 

knowledge  is  implanted  in  the  child's  nature.  It  eager- 
ly seeks  to  learn,  and  it  is  left  to  the  wisdom  of  the 
teacher  to  place  before  it  such  knowledge  as  is  best 
fitted  to  give  the  mind  the  most  symmetrical  culture 
and  development.  The  teacher  may  cultivate  and 
strengthen  this  desire  for  knowledge  by  making  his 
instruction  interesting,  and  by  giving  to  the  child  such 
facts  as  will  lead  him  to  investigate  for  himself  the 
truths  with  M'hich  he  comes  in  contact. 

5.  The  Gratification  of  Curiosity. — Curiosity  is  charac- 
teristic of  childhood.  Little  folks  eagerly  inquire,  Why 
is  this?  what  is  the  reason  for  that?  The  judicious 
teacher  not  only  arouses  curiosity,  but  he  teaches  also 
in  a  way  to  make  children  inquisitive  and  diligent  to 
find  out  for  themselves.  Much  of  success  in  teaching 
lies  in  the  ability  to  arouse  the  curiosity,  the  desire  to 
know,  on  the  part  of  children.  The  desire  for  know- 
ledge once  having  been  awakened,  the  work  of  teaching 
becomes  easy.  None  are  so  easy  to  teach  and  so  easy 
to  manage  as  those  who  want  to  know. 

Tiie  teacher  should  gratify  the  curiosity  of  children 
whenever  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  but  when  he  is  unable 
to  answer  their  questions  he  should  not  hesitate  to  tell 
them  so.  He  deceives  no  one  more  than  himself  when 
he  attem})ts  to  leave  his  pupils  under  the  impression 
that  he  knows  everything.  New  questions  should  be 
asked,  and  old  questions  should  be  put  in  a  new  way, 
60  as  to  attract  the  attention  and  awaken  the  interest 
of  the  pupils.  Thus  through  the  very  desire  to  gratify 
curiosity  the  pupil  Mill  arouse  in  himself  au  increased 
desire  for  knowledge. 


SCHOOL    WORK.  95 

6.  The  Pleasure  of  Overcoming  Difficulties. — To  the 
ambitious  boy  or  girl  probably  no  stronger  incentive  to 
study  could  be  presented  than  the  desire  to  come  off 
victor  in  his  contest  with  a  matiiematical  problem  or  a 
complicated  sentence  in  grammar.  Children  will  run 
races,  play  at  ball,  jump,  wrestle,  etc.  for  the  mere 
pleasure  it  gives  them  to  vanquish  some  competitor  or 
surmount  some  difficulty.  The  "  puzzle ''  column  in 
the  weekly  newspaper  or  the  monthly  magazine  is  fre- 
quently the  most  enticing  department  for  young  people. 
Nature  implants  this  desire  to  test  one's  strength,  in  a 
mental  as  well  as  a  physical  sense,  in  the  heart  of  every 
child. 

The  teacher,  then,  should  make  use  of  this  character- 
istic in  training  the  mind.  Problems  of  such  a  charac- 
ter should  be  given  as  are  not  beyond  the  children's 
capacity,  and  yet  sufficiently  difficult  to  make  them  feel 
that  they  have  something  to  contend  with  worthy  of 
their  strength.  They  should  be  encouraged  to  over- 
come these  difficulties  for  themselves,  and  help  should 
be  given  only  when  the  ability  of  the  child  is  found 
unequal  to  the  task  to  be  performed.  Placing  before 
pupils  the  biographies  of  such  great  men  as  have  risen 
to  eminence  through  their  own  contest  with  difficulties 
will  greatly  encourage  the  children  and  prompt  them  to 
<lo  better  work. 

7.  The  Attainment  of  an  Honorable  Position  in  School.— 
This  as  an  incentive  appeals  directly  to  the  self-respeel 
of  the  pupil.  Every  one  feels  it  an  honor  to  stand 
high  in  his  school  and  among  the  best  in  liis  class. 
Every  pupil  feels  that  it  is  worth  years  of  hard  mental 


96  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

labor  to  be  able  to  say  that  he  was  the  best  scholar  in 
the  school  which  he  attended.  This  desire  to  attain  an 
honorable  position  is  an  excellent  incentive  to  study,  and 
one  that  can  be  safely  urged  if  care  be  taken  that  no 
one's  success  be  based  on  another's  downfall.  Indi- 
vidual merit  alone  should  be  the  basis  of  success. 

8.  The  Hope  of  Success  in  Life. — The  example  of  men 
who  have  succeeded  in  business  or  who  have  risen  to 
distinction  may  safely  be  held  before  pupils  as  an  in- 
centive to  study.  The  teacher  should  show  that  even 
an  ordinary  laborer  or  a  mechanic  succeeds  better  when 
educated  to  some  extent,  and  that  educated  business-men 
of  all  kinds  are  those  who  are  most  successful,  unless 
some  weakness  of  character  be  present  to  prevent  suc- 
cess. Educated  men  are  the  ones  who  are  called  upon 
to  fill  all  important  positions  under  the  government. 
They  are  the  men  who  take  charge  of  our  manufactories 
and  railways,  edit  our  newspapers,  write  our  books,  make 
our  laws,  preside  over  our  courts,  teach  our  schools, 
preach  our  sermons,  and  in  general  do  the  important 
work  of  the  world. 

9.  The  Approbation  of  Society.— Scholars  stand  higher 
in  the  esteem  of  every  community  than  do  the  ignorant. 
Scholarship  and  education  are  admired  even  by  those 
who  do  not  possess  them.  The  schoolboy  who  stands 
higher  than  his  fellows  is  a  source  of  pride  to  the  com- 
nmnity  in  which  he  lives,  and  is  respected  because  of 
his  knowledge.  The  approbation  of  the  community, 
therefore,  is  a  proper  incentive  to  urge  upon  pupils  to 
induce  them  to  stud  v. 


SCHOOL   WORK.  97 

10.  The  Duty  of  Self-Development— This  appeals  to 
the  conscience  of  the  child,  and  as  an  incentive  to 
study  it  can  be  used  to  advantage  with  older  pupils 
only.  The  teacher  should  explain  to  his  pupils  the 
importance  of  securing  a  symmetrical  development  of 
both  mind  and  body.  He  should  show  them  how  God 
has  endowed  them  with  certain  mental  faculties  and 
physical  powers  which  are  designed  to  be  perfected  by 
use  and  training.  They  should  be  made  to  feel  that 
they  have  the  power  within  themselves  thus  to  approx- 
imate perfection,  and  that  it  is  their  duty  to  aid  the 
development  of  their  mental  and  physical  powers  by 
proper  study  and  exercise. 

Unwise  Incentives. 

It  is  not  argued  that  the  following  incentives  are 
wholly  improper  at  all  times,  but  the  doubt  with  which 
most  of  them  are  surrounded  makes  the  propriety  of 
ever  using  them  at  least  questionable,  if  not  unwise; 
and  none  but  the  weakest  teachers  will  find  it  necessary 
to  resort  to  their  use.  The  following  may  be  named  as 
the  chief  incentives  of  this  class : 

1.  Prizes. 

2.  Merit-Marks. 

3.  Personal  Emulation. 

4.  Fear  of  Shame  and  Ridicule. 

5.  Scolding. 

6.  Fear  of  Punishment. 

1.  Prizes. — Under  the  head  of  prizes  may  be  included 
anything  of  value — money,  books,  honors,  etc. — which 
is  offered  to  such  as  excel  their  schoolmates  either  in 

7 


98  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

Study  or  in  belmvior.  No  doubt  good  is  effected  by 
offering  jn-izes,  but  tlie  question  arises,  Does  not  tlie  evil 
engendered  overbalance  the  good?  We  give  the  cJiief 
arguments  on  each  side  of  the  question. 

The  chief  arguments  in  favor  of  prizes  are — 

1.  Tliatthe  Expectation  of  Winning  the  Prize  Induces 
the  Pupil  to  Study  more  Diligently.— It  is  certainly  true 
that  such  pupils  as  have  any  prospect  of  winning  the 
prize  will  strive  more  earnestly,  at  least  for  a  time.  If, 
in  addition  to  study,  general  deportment  is  made  one  of 
the  requisites  for  gaining  the  prize,  still  greater  efforts 
will  be  made  to  win  it,  for  here  the  difference  in  talent 
and  the  natural  advantages  of  one  pupil  over  another 
cannot  have  so  much  weight  as  where  study  or  good 
recitations  alone  are  made  the  criterion. 

2.  That  Profitable  Competition  is  Promoted. — It  is  ar- 
gued that  the  efforts  made  by  individuals  to  excel  one 
another  in  a  class  strengthen  each  one,  and  that  there- 
fore the  competition  is  profitable  to  those  even  who  do 
not  win,  as  well  as  to  the  more  fortunate  members  who 
gain  the  honor.  This  is  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of 
prizes  if  the  teacher  be  such  as  can  manage  the  class 
properly  and  prevent  jealousy  and  envy. 

3.  That  the  Use  of  Prizes  has  Proved  them  Beneficial. — 
It  is  claimed  that  the  use  of  prizes  has  been  continued 
80  long  in  the  shape  of  honors  in  our  higher  institutions, 
and  in  other  forms  in  the  lower,  that  certainly  some 
good  must  be  aj^parent  or  the  system  would  long  since 
have  been  abandoned. 

The  chief  arguments  against  the  use  of  prizes  to  pro- 
mote study  are — 


SCHOOL    WORK.  99 

1.  That  the  Benefits  to  be  Derived  are  Limited  to  a  Few 
Pupils. — Were  prizes  oiFered  to  the  whole  school,  graded 
according  to  actual  merit,  they  would  not  be  objection- 
able, but  then  they  would  be  rewards  of  merit,  and  no 
longer  prizes  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term. 
Prizes  being  limited  to  a  few  in  number,  however,  the 
benefits  of  the  system  are  also  limited  to  those  most 
likely  to  compete,  and  these,  while  they  may  at  first 
constitute  the  whole  class,  decrease  in  number  rapidly 
until  there  are  but  few  more  contestants  than  prizes. 

2.  That  Pupils  are  Injured  rather  than  Benefited. — The 
dull  pupils,  indeed  all  but  the  very  brightest,  soon  be- 
come discouraged  in  the  contest  and  relapse  into  greater 
lethargy  than  before,  while  the  few  participants  who 
continue  the  contest  are  unduly  stimulated,  and  thus 
have  their  powers  overtaxed.  Indeed,  those  who  enter 
the  contest  for  a  prize  are  usually  the  pupils  who  require 
least  stimulus,  and  who  ought  rather  to  be  held  back 
than  urged. 

3.  That  Prizes  Help  to  Disorganize  the  School. — It  is 
impossible  to  award  prizes  so  as  to  please  all.  The 
usual  result  is,  that  those  who  fail  in  the  contest  become 
envious  of  the  successful  competitors,  and  the  successful 
ones  regard  tiieir  less  fortunate  rivals  with  feelings  no 
more  praiseworthy.  Discord  is  thus  awakened,  and  the 
discipline  of  the  school  becomes  much  more  difficult  to 
maintain. 

4.  That  Prizes  are  Fictitious  Rewards. — They  have  no 
connection  with  study.  The  prize  having  been  gained, 
there  is  nothing  beyond,  unless  another  prize  be  offered. 
The  stimulus  being  withdrawn,  the  diligence  no  longer 
continues,  and  the  pupil's  habits  of  study  are  destroyed 


100  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

nithcr  than  confinned.  The  student  having  notliing  but 
the  prize  in  view  overlooks  the  chief  ends  of  study,  and 
studies  not  to  understand,  not  to  learn,  but  to  recite  well 
and  win  the  prize. 

5.  That  there  is  Difficulty  in  Awarding  Prizes  Justly.— 
In  awarding  a  prize  the  question  at  once  arises,  Shall  it 
be  on  merit  of  recitation  alone,  or  shall  all  incidental 
circumstances — the  difference  of  natural  talents,  the 
home-surroundings,  tlie  age  of  the  })upils,  their  advan- 
tages in  securing  outside  help,  etc. — be  taken  into  con- 
sideration ?  Shall  it  be  for  scholarship  alone,  or  shall 
deportment  also  be  considered  ?  Shall  it  be  to  those  who 
study  most  industriously  and  recite  but  indifferently,  or 
to  those  who,  being  talented,  study  but  little,  and  yet 
make  perfect  recitations  ?  These  and  many  other  ques- 
tions arise  in  the  very  outstart,  and  to  the  teacher  the 
act  of  awarding  the  prize  to  the  most  deserving  is  a 
matter  of  much  perplexity. 

6.  Great  Harm  is  Frequently  Done  in  Awarding  Prizes. — 
When  recitation  alone  forms  the  basis  of  the  award, 
merit  in  study  is  frequently  overlooked.  One  child 
may  have  intelligent  parents  or  brothers  and  sisters  who 
can  aid  him  in  his  study ;  he  may  have  access  to  libra- 
ries, or  he  may  have  plenty  of  leisure,  with  nothing  to 
distract  his  attention.  All  his  surroundings  are  favor- 
able to  study.  Another,  equally  talented,  is  placed  in 
circumstances  just  the  reverse.  He  finds  no  one  at  home 
to  help  him ;  he  has  no  library  to  consult ;  much  of  his 
time  is  taken  up  in  doing  chores ;  his  attention  is  dis- 
tracted from  study.  These  diflferences  are  not  taken 
into  consideration  in  awarding  the  prize,  and  the  award 
is  too  often  made  to  the  less  deserving  of  the  two. 


SCHOOL   WORK.  101 

2.  Merit-Marks. — Merit-marks  have  their  use  as  an  in- 
centive to  study.  But  to  make  them  useful  care  must 
be  taken  to  do  exact  justice  to  all.  A  system  of  mark- 
ing in  which  a  record  is  kept  of  every  pupil's  compara- 
tive success  or  failure  in  class-recitation  will  do  much  to 
create  an  interest  in  study,  particularly  among  the  older 
pupils.  In  this  way  also  the  school  work  may  be  better 
systematized,  and  the  class-standing  of  pu])ils  be  deter- 
mined more  accurately  than  by  any  other. 

The  chief  objections  urged  against  merit-marks 
are — 

1.  That  much  Time  is  Consumed  in  Making  the  Record. 
— To  this  it  may  be  answered  that  in  most  schools  a  suf- 
ficiently accurate  record  could  be  made  at  the  close  of 
each  day,  or  even  at  the  close  of  each  week. 

2.  Tiat  Pupils  Overlook  Higher  Objects  of  Study.— This, 
in  a  measure,  is  true,  but  by  continued  application  the 
pupil  will  finally  come  to  love  study  for  its  own  sake. 
Merit-marks  differ  from  prizes  in  being  a  continuous  in- 
centive. 

Suggestion. — Never  permit  demerits  to  cancel  merit- 
marks.  When  a  pupil  has  earned  a  mark  in  recitation, 
let  it  be  recorded  in  his  favor.  Marks  for  conduct  should 
not  be  recorded  against  marks  for  recitation,  nor  should 
deficiency  in  one  branch  be  made  to  detract  from  excel- 
lence in  another.  Each  branch  should  be  marked  on  its 
own  merits.  This  is  the  only  fair  plan.  To  demerit  a 
pupil  for  spelling  in  every  branch  recited  is  to  demerit 
him  as  many  times  improperly  as  there  are  branches 
marked.  Thus,  to  demerit  him  fifteen  per  cent,  for  spell- 
ing in  each  of  five  branches,  and  twenty-five  pei'  cent,  in 
spelling   itself,  leaves   him   nothing   whatever   in   that 


102  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

branch,  vvhereiis  his  true  mark  should  be  seven :y-five 
per  cent. 

3.  Personal  Emulation. — Emulation  is  properly  the  de- 
sire to  surpass  or  excel  others.  It  may  be  said  of  emu- 
lation as  an  incentive  to  study  that  its  value  depends 
entirely  upon  the  spirit  which  influences  the  student  in 
his  pursuit  of  knowledge.  If  the  spirit  of  emulation 
be  such  as  to  induce  pupils  to  strive  for  success  at  the 
expense  of  others  or  by  the  downfall  of  others,  it  is 
reprehensible.  But  if  the  rivalry  among  schoolmates 
be  generous,  it  may  prove  to  be  an  excellent  incentive 
♦    <=^  'dy.  ■ 

This  desire  to  surpass  others  and  to  excel  is  implanted 
in  our  nature.  We  all  measure  our  own  success  by  the 
success  of  others.  Even  in  the  games  and  plays  of  child- 
hoo  the  same  desire  is  always  apparent.  It  is  true  we 
become  in  a  measure  ambitious,  but  the  ambition  is  not 
necessarily  harmful.  Without  this  ambition  to  succeed 
the  world  would  stagnate.  All  that  ambition  needs  is  to 
be  wisely  directed  and  controlled. 

4.  Fear  of  Shame  and  Ridicule. — This  is  not  properly 
an  incentive  to  study,  nor  should  it  ever  be  used.  The 
pupil  who  can  be  reached  by  no  more  judicious  or  worthy 
incentive  than  this  fear  had  better  be  dismissed.  The 
teacher  has  no  right  to  hold  up  any  pupil  to  the  ridicule 
of  liis  fellows  so  long  as  that  pupil  can  be  reached  in  any 
other  way.  Nor  is  the  result  satisfactory.  Funny  mis- 
takes may  occur  in  classes,  but  the  wise  teacher  never 
encourages  laughter  at  the  expense  of  the  feelings  of 
sensitive  pupils. 


SCHOOL   WORK.  103 

5.  Scolding.-- To  scold  pupils  for  failure  in  lessons  is 
unwise.  The  best  of  pupils  will  in  time  become  accus- 
tomed to  scolding,  and  the  heedless  never  care  for  it ;  so 
that  in  either  case  it  has  no  good  effect.  It  is  difficult  to 
see  where  any  possible  good  can  come  from  it.  Pupils 
must  in  time  lose  respect  for  a  scolding  teacher. 

6.  Fear  of  Punishment. — This  also  is  an  unwise  stim- 
ulus to  study.  The  pupil  who  studies  only  because  he 
expects  punishment  for  failure  will  have  but  little  love 
for  learning.  He  may  manage  to  recite  well,  but  he  can 
have  no  permanent  interest  in  his  work,  and  no  perma- 
nent benefit  should  be  expected  from  such  enforced  r'-^^^jt. 
Fear  of  punishment  may  prevent  wrong  conduct,  but  good 
teaching  ought  never  to  need  an  incentive  of  this  character. 

b 
5.  How  to  Study. 

One  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  teacher  is  to  train  his 
pupils  to  correct  habits  of  study,  and  thus  make  them 
self-dependent,  that  the  best  results  may  be  attained. 
Study  will  thus  be  made  interesting,  the  student  will 
soon  learn  to  help  himself,  and  diligent  study  will  be- 
come a  life  habit.  The  following  suggestions  will  aid 
the  student  in  systematizing  the  work  of  study. 

1.  Read  the  Lesson  Carefully. — There  are  few  branches 
of  study  in  which  it  will  not  be  to  the  advantage  of  the 
pupils  for  the  teacher  to  read  over  the  lesson  slowly  and 
carefully  before  assigning  it  for  study,  so  that  every  idea 
may  be  developed  and  be  grasped  by  the  pupil.  Words 
not  familiar  should  be  expressed  in  simpler  language,  and 
principles  not  clearly  explained  should  be  made  clear, 


104  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

that  the  pupil  may  be  enabled  to  study  the  subject  un- 
derstandingly. 

2.  Tlie  Essentials  of  the  Lesson. — The  teacher  should 
point  out  the  essential  parts  of  the  lesson  and  call  atten- 
tion to  them.  Some  parts  of  a  lesson  may  profitably  be 
read  wliich  it  would  be  useless  to  commit  and  attempt  to 
hold  in  the  mind,  while  the  main  principles  and  the  im- 
portant definitions  should  claim  the  closest  study  and  at- 
tention. The  teacher  in  reading  over  the  lesson  should 
discriminate  as  to  these,  tliat  the  child  may  not  waste 
either  energy  or  time. 

3.  A  Clear  Idea  of  the  Lesson. — Having  examined  the 
lesson  in  detail,  the  teacher  should  give  the  pupil  a  clear 
idea  of  the  topic  treated  as  a  whole.  Tlie  pupil  will  thus 
apply  each  individual  fact  that  illustrates  the  general  idea, 
and  study  each  principle  with  that  general  idea  constantly 
in  view. 

4.  Primary  Study  must  be  Inductive.— The  student 
should  be  trained  to  pursue  the  study  of  any  subject 
inductively — that  is,  from  the  particular  facts  to  the 
general  laws  or  principles.  Particulars  should  be  illus- 
trated, and  the  illustrations  should  be  so  simple  that  the 
learner  must  understand.  The  general  rule  or  law  should 
be  given  only  when  the  individual  cases  and  their  appli- 
cation to  the  general  principle  are  fully  understood. 

5.  Pupils  must  Study  Understandingly.— The  teacher 
must  be  careful  to  see  that  pupils  do  not  commit  to 
memory  definitions,  principles,  or  rules  without  first 
understanding  their  full  meaning.  Eadi  rule  or  prin- 
ciple should  be  clearly  understood  by  the  student,  and 
he  should  be  able  to  illustrate  each  one  intelligently.  In 
such  studies  as  geometry  or  grammar  pupils  are  partic- 


SCHOOL   WORK.  105 

ularly  liable  to  commit  to  memory  the  subject-matter  of 
the  book  without  a  clear  comprehension  of  the  meaning 
of  the  words  of  the  book. 

6.  Pupils  should  Study  Alone. — We  grow  not  by  what 
othei's  do  for  us,  but  by  what  we  do  for  ourselves.  Self- 
help  is  the  only  means  by  which  we  acquire  power  and 
development.  Assistance  is  of  course  well  meant,  but  a 
pupil  never  should  accept  it,  even  from  a  teacher,  when 
it  is  in  his  power  to  perform  his  own  mental  labor.  In- 
dependent study  leads  to  independent  thought  and  action 
and  intellectual  strength. 

7.  Study  by  Outline. — Pupils  should  be  taught  to  out- 
line or  synopsize  the  topics  they  study.  The  synopsis 
will  not  only  train  them  to  be  systematic,  and  show 
that  they  have  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  subject, 
but  it  will  also  aid  the  memory,  and  enable  the  pupils 
to  comprehend  the  relation  between  the  various  divis- 
ions of  a  subject. 

8.  Thought  must  be  Concentrated. — The  pupil  who  per- 
mits his  thoughts  to  wander  to  a  number  of  topics  while 
engaged  in  the  study  of  a  special  one  will  rarely  accom- 
plish much.  To  study  effectively,  the  mind  must  be 
devoted  to  one  thing  at  a  time,  and  the  more  intense 
the  application  the  more  effective,  as  a  rule,  will  be  the 
study. 

6.  Attention. 

Attention  is  that  general  power  by  which  the  mind 
directs  its  thoughts  voluntarily  to  some  one  object  to 
the  exclusion  of  others.  Without  the  aid  of  attention 
no  mental  labor  could  be  performed.  On  it  depends 
the  activity  of   each   of   the  distinct  mental  faculties. 


106  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Without  it  there  could  be  no  study.  The  importance, 
therefore,  of  securing  habits  of  attention  is  evident. 
Among  the  requisites  for  securing  attention  the  follow- 
ing are  important: 

1.  The  Teacher  must  be  Interesting. — The  minister  who 
interests  his  congregation  or  the  orator  who  interests  his 
audience  never  finds  his  hearers  inattentive.  For  the 
same  reason,  the  teacher  who  interests  his  pupils  not 
only  finds  them  easily  controlled,  but  he  also  holds 
their  attention  and  induces  them  to  study.  The  facts 
presented  by  the  teacher  should  be  interesting.  The 
curiosity  of  the  pupils  should  be  aroused,  and  the 
knowledge  communicated  should  be  of  such  a  character 
as  to  create  a  desire  for  more  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 

2.  The  Teacher  should  be  Animated  in  Manner. — The 
dull,  heavy,  plodding  teacher  never  can  expect  to  create 
much  interest  in  study,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
teacher  who  finds  it  necessary  to  refer  constantly  to  the 
textbook  to  determine  the  correctness  or  incorrectness 
of  a  pupil's  answer.  In  order  to  succeed,  particularly 
with  small  children,  the  teacher  must  be  active,  wide- 
awake, and  energetic. 

3.  The  Teacher  should  Present  that  which  is  New. — 
The  child  is  always  on  the  lookout  for  something  nov- 
el. Its  curiosity  is  implanted  in  its  nature  for  a  wise 
purpose.  Great  interest  may  be  awakened  by  placing 
before  it  new  objects  which  it  can  examine  for  itself, 
and  presenting  new  truths  with  Avhich  to  arouse 
thought. 

4.  Stories  and  Anecdotes  should  be  Used  in  Teaching. — 
Children  are  always  awake  to  the  power  of  illustration 
by  stories.     The  dry  details   and   facts   of  knowledge 


SCHOOL   WOEK.  107 

may   be  made  tenfold   more  interesting  by  associating 
with  them  anecdotes,  vivid  descriptions,  or  stories. 

5.  The  Teacher  should  Adapt  his  Teaching  to  the  Ca- 
pacity of  his  Pupils.— The  teacher's  language  must  be 
such  as  his  pupils  can  comprehend,  and  his  illustrations 
such  as  they  will  readily  understand.  His  manner  also 
must  be  adapted  to  the  age  and  capacity  of  the  children. 

6.  The  Teacher  should  Attract  Attention  by  Good  Elo- 
cution.— Pleasant  tones  of  voice,  sufficiently  distinct, 
but  not  too  loud,  should  be  used  in  the  school-room. 
Pupils  are  attentive  when  natural  tones  are  used.  Fret- 
ful or  noisy  speech  irritates  them,  and  interferes  greatly 
with  their  study.  Monotone  interests  them  but  little 
more  than  do  the  constant  buzz  and  hum  of  machinery, 
but  lively,  sparkling,  conversational  tones  are  always 
attractive. 

7.  The  Teacher  should  not  Talk  too  Much. — He  should 
talk  to  the  point,  and  say  only  what  is  necessary.  Much 
talking,  and  particularly  useless  talking,  distracts  the 
attention  of  pupils.  One  statement  to  pupils,  one  read- 
ing of  a  question,  one  pronunciation  of  a  word  in  a 
spelling  class,  ought  to  be  sufficient.  The  teacher  ought 
not  to  encourage  inattentive  pupils  by  repetition. 

8.  The  Teacher  should  Hold  Attention  by  good  Class 
Management. — Let  the  class  feel  that  any  member  is 
liable  to  be  called  upon  at  any  moment  to  recite.  Noth- 
ing can  be  more  unsatisfactory  than  a  plan  of  recitation 
by  which  the  teacher  calls  on  his  class-members  to  recite 
in  alphabetic  order  or  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
seated.  The  pupils  soon  catch  the  trick,  and  prejoare 
themselves  only  when  they  expect  to  recite. 

9.  Inattentive  Pupils  should  be  Called  Frequently  to 


108  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Recitb.--Tliis  will  train  them  to  give  their  attention 
duriucr  the  recitation.  Those  also  who  are  inclined  to 
interest  themselves  during  recitation  in  matters  foreign 
to  the  lesson  should  be  called  upon  whenever  their  atten- 
tion wanders.  Persistence  in  this  plan  wnll  cure  the 
worst  cases. 

10.  The  Teacher  should  Hold  Attention  by  Variety  in 
Exercises. — He  who  knows  but  one  method  of  present- 
ing a  subject,  or  but  one  means  of  conducting  a  recita- 
tion, is  prepared  for  his  work  poorly  indeed.  He  is 
nuich  in  the  position  of  a  physician  who  always  pre- 
scribes the  same  medicine  to  all  his  patients.  The  true 
teacher  should  be  prepared  to  put  his  statements  in  a 
variety  of  ways,  so  as  to  adapt  himself  to  the  wants 
and  understanding  of  every  pupil. 

1 1 .  The  Teacher  should  be  Vigilant,  and  Keep  Ms  Pupils 
Vigilant. — If  the  members  of  a  class  become  iuattenti\-e 
because  the  teacher  interests  himself  in  one  or  a  few,  or 
from  any  other  cause,  the  recitation  should  be  discon- 
tinued at  once,  and  not  be  resumed  until  all  become 
orderly  and  attentive.  If  a  pupil  be  stubbornly  inat- 
tentive, it  is  best  either  to  ignore  him  during  that  reci- 
tation or  dismiss  him  from  the  class  for  the  time.  It  is 
useless  to  convince  him  of  his  wroucj  when  in  the  kind 
of  humor  which  makes  him  stubborn  and  disobedient. 

12.  The  Teacher  should  Show  Ms  Pupils  that  Attention 
is  the  Condition  of  Success.— Their  attention  should  be 
called  to  successful  citizens — merchants,  mechanics,  and 
professional  men — who  have  won  success  by  giving 
attention  to  business  and  doing  their  work  well.  Il- 
lustrate to  them,  by  notable  examples  from  history — 
Newton,  Scott,  Dickens,  Bryant,  Napoleon,  etc. — that 


SCHOOL   WORK.  109 

prolonged  attention  wins  success.  Train  theni  to  look 
into  their  own  life  and  there  see  the  importance  and 
value  of  forming  habits  of  attention  in  order  to  make 
them  successful.  '  Mental  strength  is  to  a  great  extent 
the  result  of  continued  attention. 

The  following  brief  Suggestions  are  made  to  teachers 
with  the  view  of  aiding  them  in  securing  and  holding 
the  attention  of  their  pupils : 

1.  Have  your  pupils  observe  closely. 

2.  Arouse  their  curiosity. 

3.  Show  that  you  yourself  are  interested  in  their 
work. 

4.  Be  cheerful. 

5.  Vary  your  methods  of  recitation. 

6.  Use  the  textbook  as  little  as  possible. 

7.  Let  your  position  before  the  class  be  such  that  you 
can  look  every  pupil  in  the  eye. 

8.  Read  a  story  or  a  description  occasionally,  and  then 
have  it  reproduced  by  the  pupils,  either  orally  or  in 
writing. 

9.  Show  your  pupils  that  you  expect  to  have  them 
ready  to  reproduce  at  any  time  whatever  you  may  tell 
them  in  recitation. 

10.  Cultivate  attention  by  giving  proper  praise  and 
credit  when  pupils  are  attentive. 

7.  Rules  for  Study. 

The  following  condensed  directions  for  study  may 
assist  both  student  and  teacher  : 

1.  Try  to  be  Interested. — We  make  little  progress  in  a 
study  which  has  no  interest  for  us. 

2.  Study  to  Know. — The  difficulty  with  many  pupils 


110  SCUOOL   MAisACiEMENT. 

is  tliat  they  study  for  tlie  recitation.  They  commit  to 
memory  where  tliey  ought  simply  to  try  to  comprehend. 
The  result  is  that  they  forget  readily,  and  their  work  is 
fruitless. 

3.  Give  Close  Attention. — Close  attention  and  close  ob- 
servation are  necessary  to  give  clear  perception.  Close 
attention  is  necessary  also  to  strengthen  the  memory, 
and  thus  enable  us  to  retain  knowledge  and  recall  it  at 
will. 

4.  Study  Systematically. — Master  each  point  as  you 
go.  See  that  each  principle  is  understood  before  you 
study  the  next  that  depends  on  it.  Go  from  the  known 
to  the  unknown.  Make  an  effort  to  comprehend  every- 
thing as  it  comes  to  you  in  turn,  so  that  when  you  finish 
a  book  you  understand  everything  in  it.  Systematic 
study  will  save  much  valuable  time.  Systematize  your 
time  also  in  such  a  way  as  will  give  to  each  study  its 
tlue  proportion. 

5.  Use  your  Knowledge.— We  know  a  thing  better  after 
we  have  told  it  to  another.  We  know  it  still  better 
after  we  have  written  about  it.  Nothing  so  firmly  fixes 
the  knowledge  in  our  minds  as  the  attempt  to  commu- 
nicate it  to  others.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  objects  of 
the  class-recitation,  to  get  such  a  clear  comprehension  of 
what  we  learn  that  we  can  tell  it  to  others. 

G.  Think. — It  is  the  man  who  thinks  that  makes  his 
mark  in  the  world.  Be  sure  of  your  knowledge.  Think 
for  yourself.  If  you  can  give  a  different  solution  or  a 
different  demonstration  from  that  of  your  teacher  or  the 
book,  give  it.  Do  not  let  a  word  or  a  definition  pass 
without  comprehending  its  meaning  fully.  The  men 
who  think   clearly,  qui-kly,  and  independently  are  the 


SCHOOL    WOEK.  Ill 

ones  whom  the  world  recognizes  as  the  great  men  who 
are  its  masters. 

7.  Alternate  Study  and  Recreation. — The  bow  always 
Lent  loses  its  elasticity.  The  mind  constantly  kept  at 
hard  work  must  ultimately  be  weakened.  Study  and 
recreation  must  alternate,  that  work  may  be  performed 
advantageously.  Periods  of  study  and  relaxation  ju- 
diciously intermingled  will  greatly  aid  students  in  mas- 
tering subjects,  but  constant  study  will  prove  of  but 
little  more  permanent  benefit  than  constant  play.  Men- 
tal recreation  is  quite  as  necessary  as  physical  recreation. 

II.  Recitation. 

The  recitation  is  an  important  feature  of  school  man- 
agement. Here  the  teacher  tests  the  work  of  his  pupils 
and  ascertains  their  progress.  Here  he  guides  and  di- 
rects their  powers,  arouses  their  enthusiasm,  and  inspires 
them  by  his  example.  Here  he  measures  their  minds, 
and  determines  the  he]})  that  may  be  necessary  to  make 
them  successful  students. 

1.  The  Objects  of  the  Recitation. 

The  chief  objects  of  the  recitation  are — 

1.  The  Mental  Discipline  of  the  Pupil. 

2.  Instruction  Imparted  by  the  Teacher. 

To  these  may  be  added  the  following  subordinate 
objects : 

3.  To  Enable  Pupils  to  Express  themselves  Properly. 

4.  To  Enable  Pupils  to  Gain  Self-Confidence. 

5.  To  Enable  Pupils  to  Fix  in  their  Minds  what  they 
Learn. 


112  SCHOOL    MANAOIiMENT. 

6.  To  Awaken  Interest  in  Study. 

7.  To  Make  Pupils  Inquisitive. 

8.  To  Cultivate  Habits  of  Attention. 

9.  To  Enable  the  Teacher  to  Correct  Errors. 

10.  To  Enable  the  Teacher  to  Test  the  Preparation  of 
the  Lesson. 

1.  The  Mental  Discipline  of  the  Pupil. — So  far  as  the 
pupil  is  fonccniecl,  this  is  the  chief  object  of  the  reci- 
tation. Private  students,  however  diligent  they  may  be 
in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  never  receive  that  culture 
and  discipline  of  mind  which  come  only  from  the  com- 
petition of  classmates  in  the  daily  recitation.  Kone  of 
us  are  quite  sure  we  know  a  truth  until  we  come  to  tell 
it.  We  may  think  our  comprehension  clear,  but  there 
is  no  certainty  until  we  apply  the  test.  Every  recitation 
develops  mental  power  on  the  part  of  attentive  pupils. 

2.  Instruction  Imparted  by  the  Teacher. — This  also  is 
an  important  object  of  the  recitation.  The  teacher  who 
can  ask  only  the  printed  questions  of  the  textbook  is 
not  a  teacher,  and  the  one  who  can  impart  no  additional 
instruction  to  that  given  in  the  textbook  is  but  little 
better  qualified  to  teach.  It  is  the  business  of  the 
teacher  to  impart  instruction  aside  from  that  found  in 
the  book.  It  is  his  duty  to  make  that  of  the  book  com- 
prehended by  the  pupils.  The  best  teachers  are  those 
who  bring  themselves  to  the  level  of  the  child-mind, 
and  then  put  the  knowledge  to  be  imparted  in  such 
shape  as  will  enable  the  learner  to  grasp  it  most  readily. 
Here  is  the  teacher's  opportunity — not  only  to  add  new 
and  important  facts,  but  also  to  give  moral  instruction 
in  an  incidental  way,  and  guide  and  direct  th^  child's 


SCHOOL   WORK.  113 

powers  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  the  most  symmet- 
rical development. 

3.  The  Recitation  Gives  Culture  in  Language. — It  is 
important  that  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  tell  what  he 
I^nows,  and  tell  it  in  good  language.  Nothing  is  of  so 
much  help  to  him  in  this  respect  as  the  class-recitation. 
It  is  no  easy  thing  to  think  clearly  while  on  one's  feet. 
Daily  practice,  however,  will  enable  all  pupils  in  time  to 
express  themselves  clearly  and  accurately.  This  is  true 
of  the  written  recitation  also.  It  is  wonderful  how  rap- 
idly pupils  improve  in  composition  and  the  use  of  lan- 
guage by  frequent  written  recitations. 

4.  The  Class-Recitation  Gives  the  Pupil  Self-Confldence. — 
The  men  who  can  rise  before  an  audience  and  give  their 
opinions  calmly  and  intelligently  are  comparatively  few 
in  number.  Indeed,  it  is  true  of  many  of  our  ablest 
scholars  that  they  find  great  difficulty  in  speaking  be- 
fore an  audience,  and  this  because  of  their  lack  of  confi- 
dence in  their  ability  to  do  so.  Class-recitation  will  not 
only  in  a  great  measure  overcome  this,  but  with  proper 
criticism  it  will  also  help  to  repress  the  tendency  man- 
ifested by  some  to  speak  too  much. 

5.  The  Recitation  Helps  to  Fix  in  the  Mind  of  the  Child 
what  he  Leams. — We  know  a  fact  more  thoroughly  after 
we  have  told  it  to  another.  Indeed,  the  very  effort  to  re- 
tain it  in  the  memory  in  order  that  we  may  tell  it  helps  to 
strengthen  that  mental  faculty,  and  helps  to  impress  the  fact 
on  the  mind.  Every  repetition  of  it  also  serves  to  make 
the  impression  all  the  deeper.  Even  the  private  student 
will  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  tell  his  knowledge  to  his 
friends,  or,  in  their  absence,  to  the  furniture  in  his  r(>)m 
as  imaginary  schoolfellows. 


114  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

G.  The  Recitation  Awakens  an  Interest  m  Study.— Class 
competition  creates  iuterest.  In  general,  the  smallest 
classes  are  those  most  difficnlt  to  interest.  But  in  me- 
dium-sized classes,  where  there  is  a  chance  for  every  one  to 
tt^st  his  ability  and  compete  with  the  other  class-member?, 
and  where  the  criticism  of  both  teacher  and  pupils  is  of 
such  a  character  as  to  keep  all  vigilant  and  active,  inter- 
est in  study  rises  to  its  maximum.  The  additional  know- 
ledge imparted  by  the  teacher  during  recitation  will  also 
add  greatly  to  the  interest  of  the  child ;  and  thus  study 
will  be  pursued  with  greater  eagerness  and  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions. 

7.  The  Class-Recitation  will  Make  Pupils  Inquisitive.— 
This  being  true,  they  will  be  better  prepared  to  receive 
such  instruction  as  the  teacher  may  be  able  to  impart. 
Having  become  inquisitive  and  desirous  of  knowing, 
the  child  places  himself  in  the  best  possible  of  teacha- 
ble conditions,  and  he  will  be  led  to  search  for  knowledge 
and  think  for  himself — an  end  greatly  to  be  desired  in  all 
teaching. 

8.  The  Recitation  Cultivates  Habits  of  Attention. — No 
matter  how  heedlessly  a  pupil  may  have  conned  over  his 
lesson  while  preparing  it,  the  moment  he  enters  the  reci- 
tation he  feels  that  his  attention  must  be  given  not  only 
to  his  own  assigned  work,  but  also  to  that  of  his  class- 
mates and  to  the  questions  and  instruction  of  the  teacher. 
However  negligent  he  may  be  elsewhere,  here  he  must  be 
attentive,  and  the  influence  exerted  on  him  here  will  also 
be  felt  elsewhere. 

9.  The  Recitation  Enables  the  Teacher  to  Correct  Errors. 
— The  correction  of  pupils'  mistakes  by  the  teacher  is  a 
recognized  duty.     If  the  pupils  are  competent  and  the 


SCHOOL  WORK.  115 

criticism  be  Idnd,  they  should  be  permitted  to  correct 
one  another's  errors;  but  in  the  event  of* their  failurii 
to  do  so,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  teaciicr  to  be  watch- 
ful and  make  all  proper  corrections.  Many  errors  never 
can  be  detected  except  in  class-recitation :  tliis  is  true  par- 
ticularly of  errors  in  pronunciation. 

10.  Tiie  Recitation  Enables  the  Teacher  to  Test  the  Work 
Done  by  the  Pupils. — Judicious  questioning  and  judicious 
methods  of  conducting  the  recitation  will  enable  the 
teacher  in  a  very  short  time  to  detect  the  idle  as  well 
as  tlie  studious  in  the  class.  Thus  day  by  day  also  he 
will  be  able  to  determine  "which  students  are  diligent 
and  which  otherwise.  He  will  be  able  also  to  determine 
by  the  daily  recitation  not  only  the  relative  improvement 
of  the  class-memberSj  l)ut  also  the  improvement  of  the 
class  as  a  whole.  He  thus  becomes  prepared  from  day 
to  day  to  assign  work  in  advance,  of  such  a  nature  and  in 
such  quantity  as  will  give  his  pupils  healthy  mental  and 
moral  growth.  The  difficulties  can  be  so  simplified  as  to 
bring  them  Avithin  the  mental  grasp  of  the  pvipil,  and 
such  incentives  can  be  placed  before  the  child  as  will 
arouse  in  him  increased  vigor  and  create  a  desire  to  cul- 
ture himself  to  the  utmost. 

2.  Methods  of  Recitation. 

The  methods  of  conducting  class-recitations  are  many, 
and  each  has  its  excellence.  The  ingenious  teacher  will 
never  fail  to  adapt  his  method  to  both  the  subject  taught 
and  the  peculiarities  of  his  pupils.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  sometimes  this  is  a  delicate  task.  We 
mention  here  only  the  most  important  methods.  They 
are — 


116  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

1 .  The  Socratic  Method. 

2.  The  Toi>ical  Method. 

3.  The*  Question  Method. 

4.  The  Discussion  Method. 

5.  The  Conversational  Method. 

6.  The  Oral  or  Lecture  Method. 

1.  The  Socratic  Method. — The  Socratic,  named  from  the 
Grecian  philosopher  Socrates,  is  that  in  which  the  pupil 
is  led  by  means  of  judicious  questions  to  discover  truth 
for  himself.  The  teacher  so  shapes  his  questions  as  to 
lead  his  pupils  to  think  for  themselves,  and  thus  gain 
knowledge  by  their  own  eifort.  By  this  method  the 
teacher  acts  constantly  as  a  guide,  but  he  imparts  little, 
and  that  little  only  where  the  pupil  is  unable  to  helj) 
himself.  In  a  similar  manner  the  pupil  is  led  to  dis- 
cover his  own  errors,  and  is  thus  placed  in  a  position 
to  correct  them. 

Illustration.— The  following  will  illustrate  briefly  the 
Socratic  method : 

Teacher  (who  is  desirous  of  showing  the  relation  of  a 
surface  one  foot  square  to  that  of  one  three  feet  square). 
If  I  draw  a  square  whose  base  is  one  foot,  liow  large  is 
the  figure? 

Pupil.  One  foot  square,  or  it  is  a  square  foot. 

Teacher.  If  now  I  draw  a.  line  a  yard  long,  and  on  it 
construct  a  square,  how  large  will  the  figure  be  ? 

Pupil.  A  yard  square,  or  three  square  feet. 

Teachei'.  Is  there,  then,  no  difference  between  a  yard 
square  and  three  square  feet? 

Pupil.  None. 

Teacher.  Let  us  draw  the  figures. 


SCHOOL    WORK.  117 

The  pupil,  under  the  teacher's  direction,  draws  a  figure 
a  foot  square  and  one  a  yard  square,  and  then  divides  the 
larger  figure  into  nine  equal  smaller  squares. 

Teacher.  Examine  these  squares ;  how  large  is  each  ? 

Pupil.  Each  is  a  foot  square,  or  a  square  foot. 

Teacher.  How  many  are  there  ? 

Pupil.  There  are  nine,  sir. 

Teacher.  How  many  square  feet,  then^  does  a  square 
yard  contain? 

Pupil.  Nine  square  feet. 

Teacher.  Then,  what  is  the  difference  between  three 
feet  square  and  three  square  feet? 

Pupil.  A  figure  three  feet  square  contains  nine  square 
feet ;  it  is  therefore  three  times  as  large  as  three  square 
feet,  or  nine  times  as  large  as  one  square  foot. 

Teacher.  That  is  correct. 

Advantages. — The  great  advantages  of  the  Socratic 
method  are,  that  pupils  glean  knowledge  for  themselves, 
and  thus  in  overcoming  obstacles  and  surmounting  diffi- 
culties win  their  own  victories.  Every  victory  gained 
is  enjoyed,  and  the  battle  makes  the  pupil  the  stronger. 
The  knowledge  acquired  is  of  such  an  interesting  nature 
that  the  impression  on  the  child's  mind  is  strong,  and 
therefore  lasting.  This  method  makes  the  pupil  the 
worker,  but  the  work  is  enjoyable,  and  therefore  but  little 
is  demanded  from  the  teacher  except  judicious  guidance. 
Its  sphere  lies  mostly  in  the  primary  or  lower-grade 
schools. 

2.  The  Topical  Method. — This  consists  in  assigning  to 
as  many  of  the  pupils  as  possible  each  an  individual 
topic  for  recitation.     Each  may  be  required  to  tell  all  he 


118  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

can  about  tlie  topic  apsigned,  or  ho  may  be  closely  ques- 
tioned on  tlio  topic,  or  both  methods  may  be  combiiu'd. 

Advantages. — The  advantages  of  this  method  are  that 
it  trains  pupils  to  study  by  topics,  rather  than  for  the 
purpose  of  answering  questions ;  it  also  enables  the  pupil 
to  gain  culture  in  language  by  making  his  statements  in 
connected  discourse;  and  it  affords  an  opportunity  to 
conduct  a  written  and  an  oral  recitation  at  the  same  time. 

Disadvantages. — There  is  danger  that  the  matter  of 
imparting  instruction  may  be  crowded  out,  and  the  time 
of  the  class  be  used  wholly  in  reciting.  Pupils  may 
prepare  themselves  only  on  the  topics  most  readily  re- 
cited. Habits  of  attention  may  be  destroyed  unless  the 
teacher  is  careful  to  assign  topics  frequently  to  those 
most  likely  to  be  inattentive,  or  judiciously  mingle  ques- 
tions with  the  topics. 

3.  The  Question  Method. — This  is  known  also  as  the 
"  Question-and-Answer  Method."  It  is  the  one  in  gen- 
eral use.  It  differs  from  the  true  Socratic  method  in 
this — that  it  makes  no  effort  to  search  for  new  truth,  or 
even  to  correct  error.  It  simply  catechizes  the  pupil  on 
the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson,  and  this  mostly  for  the 
purpose  of  testing  his  preparation. 

Advantages. — Questioning  is  an  art  which,  when  ju- 
diciously used,  will  serve  a  good  purpose,  not  only  in 
testing  the  pupil's  knowledge,  but  also  in  arousing 
thought.  One  of  the  chief  advantages  is  that  the 
teacher  can  not  only  ascertain  the  pupil's  preparation, 
but  also  detect  any  errors  which  the  learner  may  have 
imbibed.  He  is  enabled  also  to  select  only  the  essential 
poijits,  passing  over  those  of  minor  importance. 


SCHOOL    WORK.  119 

Abuse. — No  method  is  more  liable  to  abuse.  The  in- 
experienced teacher  always  adopts  this  motiiod^  partly 
because  it  is  easy  to  ask  questions,  and  partly  because  he 
knows  of  no  better.  When  printed  questions  occur  in 
the  book,  he  is  apt  to  confine  himself  to  these,  and  rest 
satisfied  if  the  answers  of  the  book  be  given  correctly. 
But  little  if  any  effort  is  made  to  impart  instruction ; 
and  the  pupil  comes  to  think  that  when  he  has  answered 
all  the  book-questions  by  the  book-answers,  he  is  a  fin- 
ished scholar  in  that  branch  of  study. 

4.  The  Discussion  Method. — This  method  consists  of 
a  statement  of  opinion  by  each  pupil  on  the  question  to 
be  discussed,  with  the  reasons  for  holding  that  opinion. 
It  is  a  method  which  can  be  used  in  only  a  portion  of 
the  branches  taught,  except  in  an  incidental  way.  It  may 
be  used  wherever  there  is  room  for  difference  of  opinion. 
Incidental  questions  spring  up  in  connection  with  almost 
every  branch  of  study  which  may  profitably  be  made 
subjects  of  discussion. 

Advantages. — This  method  develops  thought.  It  acts 
as  an  incentive  to  the  thorough  preparation  of  the  lesson, 
and  also  induces  the  student  to  search  for  knowledge  be- 
yond  that  furnished  by  the  textbook  or  even  by  the 
teacher.  The  student  not  only  gleans  the  facts,  but 
also  receives  culture  in  the  use  of  language  as  he  states 
them  in  the  most  forcible  and  convincing  way.  His 
thoughts  clarify,  and  when  he  expresses  them  he  makes 
an  effort  to  put  them  in  the  most  pointed  language. 

Abuse. — There  is  danger  that  some  may  talk  too  much, 
or  that  the  talk  may  not  be  to  the  point.  There  is  dan- 
ger also  that  trivial  topics  may  become  the  basis  of  dis- 


120  SCHOOL    MANAGEMEM. 

cussioii,  and  valuable  time  be  thus  squandered.  Some- 
times, also,  the  debate  may  run  to  personalities,  and  the 
feelings  of  some  be  wounded.  The  teacher  must  exer- 
cise great  caution  that  none  of  these  be  permitted  to  mar 
the  pleasure  or  interfere  with  the  profit  of  the  recitation. 

5.  The  Conversational  Method. — This  resembles  the 
discussion  method.  The  teacher,  however,  here  takes 
part,  and  expresses  his  opinions  also.  In  truth,  the  pu- 
pils spend  the  time  mostly  in  asking  questions,  while  the 
teacher  explains  and  answers.  This  method  may  be  em- 
ployed in  almost  every  class  to  some  extent,  and  it  will 
always  be  found  of  advantage  where  pupils  are  wide 
awake  and  anxious  to  learn.  The  teacher  permits  all 
relevant  questions  to  be  asked,  and  answers  to  the  best 
of  his  ability.  The  teacher  may  also  ask  such  questions 
as  naturally  grow  out  of  the  lesson. 

Advantages. — This  method  is  of  special  advantage 
where  professional  instruction  is  to  be  imparted,  as  in 
normal  schools,  medical  colleges,  etc.,  but  it  is  of  advan- 
tage also  in  every  other  school  in  which  the  teacher  is  a 
man  of  scholarship.  Pupils  may  often  learn  more  from 
a  genial  and  scholarly  teacher  than  from  textbooks. 
This  method  of  recitation  has  the  advantage  also  of 
giving  students  that  knowledge  which  they  most  desire, 
and  that  which  it  is  most  important  for  them  to  possess. 

Abuse. — There  is  danger  in  the  use  of  the  conversa- 
tional method  that  many  questions  may  be  asked  which 
do  not  relate  to  the  subject  of  the  lesson,  or  the  teacher 
may  be  too  talkative  and  himself  wander  away  from 
the  topic.  There  is  danger  also  that  the  pupils  may 
Bet  the  teacher  to  talking,  as   wise  college-boys  often 


SCHOOL   WORK.  121 

have  done,  for  tl/e  purpose  of  avoiding  the  recitation 
of  the  day.  Teachers  who  attempt  to  use  the  conver- 
sational method  must  feel  that  they  have  the  knowledge 
necessary  to  keep  up  the  proper  interest  in  class. 

6.  The  Lecture  Method. — This  consists  in  the  teacher's 
presenting  and  discussing  a  subject,  while  the  pupils  sit 
and  listen  and  attempt  to  fix  in  their  minds  the  leading 
points,  to  be  reproduced  at  some  future  time. 

A  variation  of  the  method  consists  in  having  the 
pupils  take  notes,  which  are  to  form  the  basis  for  future 
study. 

A  second  variation  consists  in  having  the  teacher  sub- 
mit simply  an  outline  of  the  subject,  and  at  the  same 
time  suggest  the  best  method  of  study  and  the  proper 
books  to  be  consulted. 

Advantage. — The  chief  advantage  of  this  method  lies 
in  the  fact  that  the  lecturer  can  reach  an  audience  of 
hundreds  at  the  same  time,  and  thus  present  his  know- 
ledge without  increased  effort  to  a  much  larger  number 
than  by  any  other  method. 

Abuse. — The  method  has  many  disadvantages  and 
dangers.  Only  those  most  closely  attentive  receive  any 
benefit.  Even  universities  and  professional  schools  find 
it  necessary  to  have  frequent  examinations  on  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  the  lectures,  in  order  to  derive  any  benefit 
from  the  lecture  method.  The  lecturer  is  unable  to  de- 
termine who  of  his  audience  comprehend  his  statements. 
Much  repetition  is  necessary,  that  the  few  grains  of 
wheat  in  the  large  quantity  of  mental  chaff  may  be 
safely  lodged  in  the  mind  of  the  learner. 

In  the  lower-grade  scliools  the  lecture  method  has  no 


122  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

place  whatever.  It  is  worse  than  useless,  and  as  a  dis- 
tinctive method  in  the  higlier-grade  schools  it  has  but 
little  value  unless  associated  with  some  of  the  more  val- 
uable methods.  The  chief  value  of  oral  instruction,  as 
ilistinguished  from  the  lecture  method  of  recitation,  is 
found  in  primary  schools,  where  object-lessons  form  the 
basis  of  instruction. 

A  Combination  of  Methods,  and  the  frequent  use  of 
the  most  valuable  parts  of  each,  will  produce  the  best 
results.  The  progressive  and  earnest  teacher  finds  it 
necessary  to  vary  his  methods  constantly,  so  as  to  keep 
up  the  greatest  possible  interest. 

3.  The  Art  of  Questioning. 

Questioning  is  an  important  part  of  every  valuable 
method  of  recitation,  and  the  teacher  who  best,  under- 
stands the  art  of  questioning  will  in  general  succeed 
best,  not  only  in  awakening  interest,  but  also  in  disci- 
pline and  in  imparting  knowledge. 

Objects  of  Questioning. 

1.  The  first  important  object  of  questioning  is  to  give 
proper  direction  to  the  efforts  of  the  learner.  Few  pupils 
know  how  to  pursue  a  study  to  the  best  advantage.  A 
few  judicious  questions  from  the  teacher  will  give  his 
j)upils-tUe  key,  and  thus  enable  them  to  gain  knowledge 
by  their  ow\i  independent  effort.  This  is  the  valuable 
feature  of  the  Socratic  method  of  imparting  knowledge, 
that  it  induces  the  pu})il,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
teacher,  to  search  for  truth  for  himself. 

2.  An  important  object  of  questioning  is  to  detect  and 
correct  error.     Pupils  do  not  always  study  understand- 


SCHOOL   WORK.  123 

ingly.  Frequently  they  commit  words,  but  fail  to  ac- 
quire ideas.  Often  their  comprehension  is  not  clear  or 
their  view  is  but  a  partial  one.  To  many  a  pupil  a 
circle  means  the  curved  line,  and  not  the  space  enclosed 
within.  All  these  errors  can  be  b(\st  reached  by  judi- 
cious questions.  The  teacher  should  never  rest  satisfied 
when  the  pupil  gives  the  mere  textbook  answer,  but  he 
should  see  that  the  child's  comprehension  of  that  answer 
is  clear  and  correct. 

3.  An  important  object  of  questioning  is  to  test  the 
preparation  of  the  lesson.  There  is  danger  that  a  pupil 
may  prepare  his  lesson  only  when  he  expects  to  be  called 
on  to  recite ;  but  when  he  feels  that  the  teacher  is  liable 
to  call  on  him  at  any  time  or  any  number  of  times  dur- 
ing a  recitation,  the  danger  is  obviated,  because  he  makes 
preparation  for  every  recitation. 

4.  It  is  an  important  object  of  questioning  to  bring  out 
the  essentials  of  a  lesson.  Often  that  which  is  of  least 
importance  in  a  topic,  as  the  illustrations  and  anecdotes, 
will  be  found  to  be  that  which  is  most  readily  remem- 
bered by  the  pupil.  Judicious  questioning  will  show 
the  pupil  the  application  of  these  and  impress  the  prin- 
ciple on  the  child's  mind. 

5.  It  is  an  object  of  questioning  to  cultivate  attention. 
Next  to  the  interest  aroused  by  apt  oral  instruction, 
nothing  is  so  well  calculated  to  keep  awake  the  atten- 
tion of  a  class  as  judicious  questioning.  The  thoughtful 
teacher  will  of  course  see  that  all  pupils  are  questioned, 
not  in  consecutive  order,  but  promiscuously,  and  partic- 
ularly when  least  attentive. 

6.  It  is  an  object  of  questioning  to  train  pupils  to 
think.     The  teacher  who  does  not  arouse  thouy-lit  in  the 


121  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

niiucli  of  his  pupils  fails  in  an  important  part  of  his 
work.  This  is  indeed  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  all 
education — to  make  thinkers.  Questions  should  be  so 
put  as  to  lead  pupils  to  think  for  themselves.  Having 
once  been  trained  to  think  and  reflect,  the  pupil  learns 
for  himself,  and  the  truths  he  discovers  become  his  own. 

How  to  Put  Questions. 

1.  A  Question  may  be  Put  to  the  Whole  Class. — The 
advantage  in  tiiis  method  is  that  the  attention  of  all  the 
pupils  is  necessary.  Various  plans  may  be  followed  as  to 
the  manner  of  receiving  the  answer : 

a.  The  pupils  may  be  permitted  to  think  for  a  mo- 
ment, and  then  some  particular  one  be  called  upon  for 
an  answer. 

b.  When  the  question  is  put,  all  that  are  able  to  an- 
6wer  may  be  permitted  to  raise  the  hand,  and  then  the 
teacher  selects  some  one  to  recite. 

C.  Some  one  may  be  called  upon  to  answer  in  part,  and 
suddenly  another  member  of  the  class  may  be  directed  to 
finish  the  answer. 

d.  The  answer  may  be  given  in  concert. 

2.  The  Question  may  be  Put  to  a  Single  Member  of  the 
Class. — This  plan  also  has  its  advantages,  and  the  atten- 
tion of  all  may  be  secured  almost  as  well  as  by  putting 
the  question  to  the  whole  class.  Several  variations  of 
this  plan  may  be  followed : 

a.  When  one  pupil  has  partially  answered  a  question, 
another  may  be  called  upon  to  finish  it. 

b.  A  pupil  may  be  called  upon  to  answer  not  only  the 
first  question  propounded,  but  also  such  otbei-s  as  may 
naturally  follow. 


SCHOOL   ^VORK.  125 

C.  A  pu])il  having  answered  his  question,  as  an  occa- 
sional exercise  may  be  accorded  the  privilege  of  patting 
a  question  to  some  other  member  of  the  class. 

Cautions. — Tlie  following  cautions  are  important: 

1.  Do  not  question  your  pupils  in  alphabetical  order. 

2.  Do  not  question  your  pupils  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  seated. 

3.  Do  not  fall  into  the  habit  of  permitting  your  pupils 
to  answer  in  concert. 

4.  Do  not  help  your  pupils  to  answer  by  suggesting 
an  important  word  here  and  there. 

5.  Do  not  depend  on  the  textbook  for  question  and 
answer. 

6.  Ask  your  questions  promiscuously. 

7.  Frequently  call  upon  the  inattentive  to  answer. 

8.  If  some  pupils  remain  inattentive,  keep  on  asking 
them  questions,  even  if  they  receive  the  greater  part  of 
lesson. 

9.  Put  your  questions  in  j^roper  tones  of  voice. 

10.  Do  not  scold  a  pupil  for  ftiilure  to  answer. 

11.  Rarely  repeat  a  question.  Your  pupils  should  be 
attentive  and  hear  it  the  first  time. 

12.  Always  give  your  slow  pupils  time  to  think.  Pu- 
pils vary  greatly  in  their  ability  to  express  themselves 
promptly. 

13.  Put  your  questions  so  as  to  make  your  jiupils  dis- 
cover truth  for  themselves. 

14.  Encourage  your  pupils  to  ask  questions,  and  when 
you  have  time  let  other  pupils  answer. 

15.  When  you  make  an  explanation,  see  that  your  pu- 
pils understand  it,  and  then  call  upon  some  of  them  lo 
repeat  it. 


126  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

The  Subject-Mattep  of  Questions. 

1.  The  Questions  sliould  be  Definite. — Obscurity  in  the 
language  of  a  question  may  lead  to  incorrect  answers, 
for  Avliicli  the  teacher  and  not  the  pupil  is  responsible. 
Questions  siiould  be  pointed,  and  so  definite  in  meaning 
that  the  pupil  will  not  fail  to  understand. 

2.  Questions  should  be  Pertinent. — They  should  relate 
to  the  subject.  Irrelevant  questions,  or  such  as  do  not 
pertain  to  the  lesson,  should  not  be  given,  though  the 
teacher  will  do  well  at  any  time  to  test  the  pupil's  gene- 
ral knowledge  by  asking  questions  which  are  not  answered 
by  the  statements  of  the  textbook. 

3.  Questions  should  be  Exhaustive. — The  teacher  should 
see  that  every  part  of  the  lesson  is  understood.  He  can 
best  do  this  by  making  his  questions  exhaustive  in  cha- 
racter, so  that  they  may  cover  the  entire  ground  of  the 
lesson. 

4.  The  Questions  should  be  Graded. — It  is  wise  to  grade 
the  difficulty  of  the  question  according  to  the  capacity  of 
the  pupil.  There  will  be  some  in  the  class  who  can  an- 
swer every  question,  while  others  think  more  slowly  and 
find  greater  difficulty  in  expressing  themselves.  The 
txiacher  may  venture  on  giving  to  the  former  any  ques- 
tion, but  it  may  be  necessary  to  encourage  the  slower 
pupil  by  giving  him  frequently  some  of  the  easier  work 
to  perform. 

Cautions. — 1.  Do  not  put  questions  to  puzzle  pupils. 

2.  Do  not  put  irrelevant  questions  to  show  your  own 
learning. 

3.  Do  not  put  questions  that  include  too  much. 

4.  Do  not  put  silly  question.s. 


SCIIOOI.    WORK.  127 

5.  Do  not  put  aimless  questions. 

6.  Do  not  put  questions  whose  language  is  ambiguous. 

The  Forms  of  Questions. 

1.  Questions  should  be  Concise. — The  language  of  the 
question  should  be  concise  and  express  briefly  what  '.s 
required.  Tliis  is  particularly  true  of  oral  questions. 
Too  often  in  attempting  to  keep  in  mind  the  wording 
of  a  question  the  pupils  lose  the  idea. 

2.  Questions  should  be  Clearly  Stated. — The  language 
should  be  such  that  the  pupil  may  understand  just  what 
is  required  of  him.  The  language  should  also  be  jjrecise, 
so  that  the  exact  meaning  may  be  expressed. 

3.  Questions  should  be  Adapted  to  the  Subject. — Ques- 
tions in  grammar  must  necessarily  differ  in  form  from 
those  given  in  geography  or  arithmetic,  and  thus,  in 
general,  each  branch  of  study  must  have  the  form  of 
questions  adapted  so  as  best  to  develop  the  thought  and 
test  the  knoAvledge  of  the  learner. 

4.  Questions  should  be  Varied  in  Form,  so  as  to  keep  up 
interest  in  the  work.  That  teacher  usually  succeeds  best 
who  by  constantly  varying  his  manner  of  instructing  and 

.questioning  keeps  up  the  most  lively  interest  in  his  class; 
and  he  who  falls  into  the  monotonous  routine  of  present- 
ing his  questions  all  in  the  same  form  must  eventually 
find  his  pupils  becoming  dull  and  listless. 

Cautions. — 1.  Do  not  use  leading  questions;  as,  "Paris 
is  in  France,  is  it  not  ?" 

2.  Do  not  put  questions  that  can  be  answered  by  yes 
or  no. 

3.  Do  not  put  questions  which  are  alternate  in  form ; 
as,  "Is  Presque  Isle  an  island  or  not?" 


128  SCHOOL    MANAGEMKNT. 

4.  Do  not  put  questions  in  sucli  a  form  as  to  suggest 
the  answer;  as,  "Was  Washington  the  first  President  of 
the  United  States?" 

The  Manner  of  Putting  Questions. 
Variety  is  necessary  in  the  matter  of  conducting  class- 
recitations,  that  the  interest  of  pupils  may  be  kept  fully 
aroused.  The  teacher  should  change  his  manner  from 
day  to  day.  The  following  methods  will  prove  of  ad- 
vantage : 

1.  Give  the  question  in  a  general  way  to  the  whole 
class  before  calling  on  any  particular  one  to  recite. 

2.  Sometimes  permit  the  pupils  to  ask  the  questions 
while  you  recite. 

3.  Sometimes  put  all  the  questions  to  a  single  pupil 
or  two. 

4.  When  conveying  instruction,  lead  pupils  to  dis- 
cover error  as  well  as  truth  by  such  questions  as  will 
lead  them  to  think. 

5.  When  testing  knowledge,  put  the  questions  in 
such  a  way  as  to  draw  out  the  full  understanding  of  the 
pupil. 

G.  Sometimes  allow  a  pupil  to  take  the  place  of  th(i 
teacher  in  asking  questions  of  his  fellows. 

7.  Permit  pupils  to  ask  all  the  questions  they  desire, 
so  long  as  they  seek  for  information. 

8.  Be  prompt  to  repress  any  questions  asked  for  mere 
pertness  or  a  desire  to  puzzle. 

4.  Answers. 

Answers  must  of  course  conform  to  the  questions 
asked,  and  they  must  be  governed  to  some  extent  by  the 


SCHOOL    WORK.  129 

same  principles  that  apply  to  questions.     Tlie  following 
suggestions  are  subniittetl: 

1.  The  Answers  should  be  to  the  Point. — They  should 
contain  all  that  is  implied  in  the  questions,  but  no  more. 

2.  They  should  be  Concise. — No  more  words  should  be 
used  than  are  necessary  to  express  the  thought  definitely. 

3.  They  should  be  Clear. — The  language  of  the  answer 
should  not  be  ambiguous  or  liable  to  misconstruction. 

4.  They  should  be  Comprehensive. — A  partial  answer 
is  not  sufficient.  The  answer  should  be  full  and  cover 
all  that  is  called  for  by  the  question, 

5.  They  should  be  Given  Understandingly. — The  j^upil 
should  not  be  permitted  to  commit  an  answer  to  memory 
and  repeat  it  without  fully  understanding  it. 

6.  They  should  be  Correct. — This  is  true  of  both  the 
answer  itself  and  the  language  in  which  it  is  expressed. 
Errors  either  in  fact  or  in  language  should  be  corrected. 
Errors  of  fact  may  be  corrected  by  the  pupils,  but  errors 
in  language  are  generally  best  corrected  by  the  teacher. 

7.  They  should  be  Given  in  Proper  Tones  of  Voice. — 
Neither  a  monotonous  drawl  nor  a  high-pitched,  rapid 
enunciation  should  be  permitted.  Pleasant  conversational 
tones  are  the  best  suited  to  school-room  work. 

8.  They  should  Usually  be  Given  Singly. — Concert  reci- 
tations are  not  well  calculated  to  test  knowledge,  how- 
ever well  adapted  they  may  be  for  the  purpose  of  drill. 

9.  They  may  be  Given  Orally  or  in  Writing. — Both 
Aiethods  have  their  advantages.  A  change  from  one 
method  to  the  other  is  frequently  advantageous.  It  is  a 
good  plan  also  to  have  a  portion  of  the  class  engaged  in 
writing  answers  while  others  answer  orally  to  a  different 
set  of  questions. 


I3(j  SCHOOL    MANAGEiMEXT. 

10.  With  Beginners  the  Answers  should  be  in  Complete 
Sentences.— This  will  be  of  valuable  aid  to  them  in  giv- 
ing them  language-cnlture,  but  it  should  not  be  carried 
to  extremes. 

11.  The  Mode  of  Answering  must  be  Adapted  to  the 
Character  of  the  Study. — Thus,  the  parsing  of  a  word, 
the  analysis  of  a  sentence,  the  solution  of  a  problem,  the 
discussion  of  a  topic  in  history,  the  reading  of  a  para- 
graph, and  the  answer  to  a  question  in  geography, — all 
must  differ  somewhat  in  form. 

5.  Criticism. 

ICrror  in  answers  should  be  corrected  in  class.  The  cor- 
rections may  be  made  by  either  the  pupils  or  the  teacher. 
When  possible,  the  pupil  should  be  permitted  to  correct 
his  own  errors.  If  the  pupils  are  permitted  to  make  the 
corrections,  they  will  become  more  observant  of  their 
own  mistakes.  This  plan  also  cultivates  attention  and 
makes  each  one  watchful. 

Criticism  should  be  Kindly  in  its  Character. — Criticism 
for  the  mere  purpose  of  finding  fault  or  exhibiting  a 
liupil's  smartness  should  not  be  tolerated.  Much  injury 
may  be  done  to  a  diffident  pupil  by  sharp  and  uncalled- 
for  criticism. 

Criticism  should  be  Discriminative. — A  mere  slip  of  the 
tongue  or  a  slight  error  in  pronunciation  is  sometimes 
deemed  of  more  importance  in  the  mind  of  the  criti(! 
than  a  misstatement  of  fact.  Criticism  of  this  kind 
should  be  repressed.  Care  should  be  taken  that  timid 
pupils  be  not  discouraged  by  harsh  or  unwise  criticism. 

Criticism  should  Point  out  Merits  as  weU  as  Demerits. — 
Great  care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  pupils  do  not 


SCHOOL   WORK.  131 

fall  into  the  habit  of  overpraising  or  praising  indiscrim- 
inately. Sucih  praise  soon  loses  its  effect.  To  say  of 
each  pupil  as  he  recites,  "  You  did  well/'  becomes  mo- 
notonous in  the  extreme,  and  quite  as  untruthful  as 
monotonous. 

Criticism  should  be  Made  with  the  Purpose  of  Conveying 
Information. — Wiiere  there  is  danger  that  criticism  by 
pupils  may  be  unkind  or  undiscriminating  in  its  charac- 
ter, the  teacher  should  correct  the  mistakes,  and  in  doing 
so  lead  the  pupils,  when  possible,  to  discover  their  own 
errors  and  correct  them, 

6.  Preparation  for  tlie  Recitation. 

i.  The  Teacher. 

1.  The  Teacher  should  Prepare  each  Lesson  by  Fresh 
Study. — No  matter  how  well  he  may  understand  the 
subject,  new  study  will  suggest  new  ideas  and  new 
methods  of  illustration,  by  means  of  which  the  lesson 
may  be  made  more  interesting  and  profitable. 

2.  The  Teacher  must  be  Familiar  with  the  Subject- 
matter  of  the  Lesson. — We  cannot  teach  that  which  we 
do  not  know.  A  teacher  may  possibly  suggest  methods 
of  study  in  branches  with  which  he  is  not  thoroughly 
familiar,  but  he  surely  cannot  teach  those  branches,  nor 
any  part  of  them,  profitably  unless  he  thoroughly  un- 
derstands them. 

3.  The  Teacher  Needs  Preparation,  that  he  may  Add  to  the 
Knowledge  supplied  by  the  Textbook. — A  textbook  is,  after 
all,  a  mere  outline  of  the  study  to  be  pursued.  Many 
facts  are  to  be  added,  many  explanations  of  principles 
are  demanded,  many  illustrations  are  to  be  given,  that 


]32  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

(he  juii)il  inny  fully  understand  and  comprehend  his 
work.  Hearing  a  lesson  recited  is  not  teaching.  Teach- 
ing in  its  proper  sense  demands  close  study  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher,  that  he  may  illustrate  and  explain,  and  tiius 
interest  and  instruct. 

4.  The  Teacher  Needs  Preparation,  that  he  may  Present 
the  Facts  and  Truths  of  the  Lesson  in  their  Proper  Order, 
— The  natural  order,  or  that  in  which  pupils  will  most 
readily  grasp  the  truth,  w^ill  be  found  the  best  in  wdiich 
to  present  it.  A  heterogeneous  mixture  of  disconnected 
facts  is  almost  valueless  as  knowledge. 

5.  The  Teacher  Needs  Preparation,  that  he  may  be  Able 
to  Show  clearly  the  Relation  of  each  Lesson  to  its  Prede- 
cessor.— Lessons  cannot  be  profitably  taught  except  as 
they  sustain  and  strengthen  one  another.  The  principles 
and  truths  of  science  are  valuable  mainly  through  their 
relations.  Disconnect  them,  and  they  become  a  mere 
mass  of  disjointed  fragments  which  Iiave  no  relation 
except  in  their  application. 

6.  The  Teacher  Needs  Preparation,  that  he  may  Have  at 
Command  the  Entire  Subject-matter  of  the  Lesson. — Nothing 
will  so  confuse  a  teacher  as  to  have  his  pupils  drive  sharp 
(picstions  at  him  when  he  is  unprepared  to  answer ;  and 
nothing  will  so  soon  cause  pupils  to  lose  confidence  in 
that  teacher  as  finding  him  unable  to  give  them  the  in- 
formation they  seek.  Everything  with  reference  to  the 
lesson  should  be  clear  in  his  mind,  that  he  may  be  able 
to  give  information  when  it  is  desired. 

7.  The  Teacher  Needs  Preparation,  that  he  may  be  Ena- 
bled to  Present  the  Difficulties  of  the  Lesson  in  an  Intelligible 
Manner. — The  language  of  the  textbook  may  be  obscure 
or  the  comprehension  of  a  pupil  in  a  measure  dull.     It 


SCHOOL  WORK.  133 

is  for  the  teacher  to  explain  the  textbook  in  such  terms 
as  the  tlullest  pupil  can  comprehend.  Clear  language 
needs  clear  thought,  and  clear  thought  needs  clear  lan- 
guage in  which  to  express  it. 

8.  The  Teacher  Needs  Preparation,  that  he  may  be  Able 
to  Conduct  the  Recitation  without  Loss  of  Time. — Wliere 
apparatus  is  needed  it  sliould  be  in  place  before  the  reci- 
tation begins.  No  time  ought  to  be  lost  in  hunting  or 
putting  in  place  charts,  maps,  or  other  apparatus.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  subsidiary  questions  likely  to  come 
up  in  the  lesson.  There  is  no  more  pitiful  sight  than 
that  of  a  teacher  who  knows  so  little  of  a  lesson  that 
he  is  compelled  to  hunt  for  the  answer  to  his  question 
while  the  pupil  is  attempting  to  give  it  orally. 

2.  The  Pupil. 

The  chief  object  of  the  assignment  of  lessons  is  that 
pupils  may  both  gain  discipline  of  mind  and  acquire 
knowledge  while  preparing  to  recite.  This  end  is  fre- 
quently neither  understood  nor  appreciated  by  either 
teacher  or  pupil,  and  too  often  the  preparation  of  the 
lesson  is  made  simply  for  the  pur])ose  of  reciting  well 
and  securing  a  high  standing  in  class.  The  importance 
of  the  pupil's  preparation  of  the  lesson  seems  so  ob- 
vious that  it  needs  no  argument.  The  following  are  tin 
chief  reasons  why  pupils  should  make  preparation  foi 
recitation : 

1.  The  pupil  must  study  the  lesson  in  order  that  he 
may  acquire  knowledge. 

2.  He  must  study  the  lesson  in  order  that  he  may 
express  himself  clearly. 

3.  He  must  study  the  lesson  in  order  that  he  may 


134  SCHOOL   MANAGEMEXT. 

seek  information  on  points  which  he  does  not  fully  un- 
(lerstiuid. 

4.  He  must  study  the  lesson  in  order  that  he  may 
fully  understand  the  relation  between  the  principles  of 
the  branch  studied. 

5.  He  must  study  the  lesson  in  order  to  gain  dis- 
cipline. 

6.  He  must  study  tliat  his  knowledge  may  become 
systematized  in  his  mind. 

7.  He  must  study  that  he  may  make  the  truths  pre- 
sented by  the  textbook  or  taught  by  the  teacher  a  part 
of  his  own  knowledge. 

8.  He  should  seek  as  little  help  as  possible  from  either 
his  teacher  or  his  associates. 

7.  The  Teacher  in  the  Recitation. 

The  success  of  the  recitation  depends  much  upon  the- 
manner  in  which  the  teacher  conducts  his  work.  A  hasty, 
irritiible,  or  thoughtless  teacher  may  do  much  to  put  his 
pupils  in  an  unteachable  frame  of  mind.  Indeed,  it 
is  no  uncommon  thing  for  a  scolding  or  over- talkative 
teacher  to  make  his  class  so  nervous  and  fretful  that 
steady  thought  with  them  is  an  impossibility.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  an  extremely  nervous  teacher  in  the  class- 
room. His  nervousness  and  restlessness  are  imparted  to 
his  pupils,  and  in  either  of  the  cases  referred  to  here  the 
disorder  of  the  class  (and  classes  under  the  care  of  such 
teachers  are  usually  disorderly)  is  directly  chargeable  to 
the  teacher  himself. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  dull,  phlegmatic,  easy-going 
teacher  is  out  of  place  in  the  class-room.  If  his  pupils 
do  not  become  utterly  heedless  and  inattentive,  they  will 


SCHOOL    WORK.  135 

at  least  take  advantage  of  liis  laziness ;  and,  again,  the 
result  will  be  disorder  and  confusion. 

Executive  ability  shows  itself  nowhere  to  better  ad- 
vantage than  in  the  class.  The  teacher  who  gives  faithful 
attention  to  his  class  work,  and  at  the  same  time  success- 
fully governs  the  remainder  of  his  pupils,  may  be  proud 
of  his  success.  It  needs  a  rare  combination  of  qualities 
to  be  at  the  same  time  a  good  teacher  and  a  successful 
disciplinarian. 

No  two  teachers  will  conduct  a  recitation  in  precisely 
the  same  manner.  No  set  of  rules,  therefore,  can  be 
given  which  will  apply  to  the  action  of  all  teachers, 
but  there  are  general  pr^inciples  which  govern  the  work 
of  class-recitation  that  those  who  expect  to  engage  in  the 
work  of  teaching  would  do  well  to  heed  : 

1.  The  teacher  while  hearing  a  recitation  should  assume 
such  a  position  as  will  enable  him  to  keep  all  his  pupils 
in  sight. 

2.  In  large  classes  it  is  best,  when  possible,  for  the 
teacher  to  assume  a  standing  position ;  but  Avhether  sit- 
ting or  standing  the  position  should  be  graceful. 

3.  The  teacher's  manners  in  the  presence  of  his  class 
should  be  dignified  and  gentlemanly. 

4.  The  teacher  should  be  pleasant  and  affable  in  his 
manner  of  teaching,  and  thus  control  his  class  by  his 
own  example. 

5.  The  teacher  should  so  conduct  his  work  as  to  keep 
all  in  the  class  interested  and  busy. 

6.  The  teacher  should  show  by  his  manner  that  he 
himself  is  fully  interested  in  what  he  attempts  to  teach, 
and  thus  awaken  interest  on  the  part  of  his  pupils. 

7.  The  teacher's  language  should  be  well  chosen  and 

/ 

I 


136  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

correct,  that  his  pupils  may  not  lose  respect  for  him  be- 
cause of  his  many  errors  of  speech. 

8.  The  teacher  should  be  enthusiastic  and  energetic, 
thus  leading  his  pupils  to  feel  the  importance  of  the 
work  in  which  they  are  engaged. 

9.  The  teacher  should  use  pleasant  tones  of  voice,  and 
thus  avoid  creating  nervousness  in  either  himself  or  his 
pupils. 

10.  The  teacher  should  be  even-tempered,  not  per- 
mitting trifles  to  ruffle  him  or  provoke  him  to  scold,  and 
thus  make  his  pupils  disorderly. 

11.  The  teacher  should  be  prompt  in  calling  and  dis- 
missing classes,  and  prompt  in  his  questions  and  general 
class  work. 

12.  Everything  in  the  class-recitation  should  be  me- 
thodical and  systematic,  but  not  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
destroy  interest. 

13.  The  teacher's  manner  should  be  such  as  to  en- 
courage the  timid  and  repress  the  impertinent. 

14.  The  teacher  should  be  quick  to  change  his  method 
of  recitation  the  moment  the  interest  begins  to  flag. 

15.  The  teacher  should  take  as  little  of  the  recita- 
tion-time as  possible  in  reprimanding  pupils.  A  simple 
sha;ke  of  the  head  is  more  effective  than  a  half  hour's 
scolding. 

16.  The  teacher  should  move  about  occasionally  among 
his  pupils  even  during  recitation.  This  will  tend  to  keep 
all  orderly  and  busy. 

17.  The  teacher  should  not  be  too  prompt  to  help  a 
pupil  out  of  a  difficulty  by  offering  assistance.  The  reci- 
tation is  to  be  made  by  the  pupil,  not  the  teacher. 

18.  The  teacher  should  be  watchful  that  his  pupils 


SCHOOL    WORK.  137 

use  correct  speech  in  asking  questions  aii'l   in  giving 
answers. 

19.  The  teacher's  manner  should  be  such  as  to  en- 
courage inquiry,  though  he  may  not  be  able  to  answer 
all  the  questions  asked. 

20.  The  teacher  should  avoid  the  extreme  of  seem- 
ing cold,  dull,  phlegmatic,  and  uninterested,  as  well  as 
the  opposite  of  being  excitable,  nervous,  and  fretful  at 
the  Aveakness  or  tardiness  of  ])upils. 

21.  The  teacher  should  not  laugh  at  the  mistakes  of 
his  pupils,  or  ridicule  them. 

8.  The  Pupil  in  Recitation. 

Pupils  will  diifer  in  manner  in  the  class-recitation  as 
well  as  in  their  general  conduct,  because  they  differ  in 
constitutional  temperament;  and  the  teacher  must  not 
expect  pupils  of  a  nervous,  sanguine  temperament  to  con- 
duct themselves  in  the  same  manner  as  those  who  are 
dull  and  phlegmatic,  any  more  than  he  should  expect  to 
tame  a  gazelle  and  have  it  work  side  by  side  with  a  plod- 
ding cart-horse.  Pupils  of  different  constitutional  tem- 
peraments need  different  treatment  and  discipline,  though 
the  teacher  should  be  impartial  to  each.  The  following 
suggestions  may  be  made  with  profit  to  all  pupils : 

1.  Give  your  full  attention  while  in  class. 

2.  Come  to  class  in  a  teachable  condition. 

3.  Be  determined  to  learn  all  you  can. 

4.  Do  not  be  discouraged  because  you  occasionally 
fail. 

5.  Be  courteous  and  polite  to  your  teacher  and  your 
schoolmates. 

6.  Do  not  criticise  for  the  purpose  of  finding  fault. 


138  SCHOOI.   MANAGEMENT. 

7.  When  you  correct  a  mistake,  do  it  kindly. 

8.  Do  not  laugh  at  the  mistakes  of  your  schoolmates. 

9.  Give  answers  in  your  own  language. 

10.  Never  permit  a  classmate  to  help  you. 

11.  Never  prompt  a  classmate  to  answer. 

12.  Speak  distinctly  and  deliberately. 

13.  Rise  when  you  answer  a  question,  particularly  if 
the  answer  be  long. 

14.  Raise  your  hand  when  you  desire  to  answer  a 
question  or  ask  for  information,  but  do  not  snap  the  fin- 
gei*s  to  attract  attention. 

15.  Do  not  speak  without  permission  of  the  teacher. 

16.  Sit  or  stand  erect  in  class.     Do  not  lounge. 

17.  Pass  to  and  from  class  promptly  but  quietly. 

18.  Never  cheat  yourself  or  the  teacher  by  stealing  an 
answer  from  the  book  or  copying  from  your  neighbor. 

19.  Come  to  the  recitation  always  with  your  lesson 
well  prepared. 

20.  Ask  questions  when  you  do  not  undei*staud  or 
when  you  desire  information. 

III.  Examinations. 

School  examinations  are  a  necessary  adjunct  to  proper 
school  management.  They  have  their  use,  but  w^hen  im- 
properly conducted  they  are  liable  also  to  great  abuse. 
As  an  incentive  to  study  they  are  among  the  strongest 
and  most  effective.  Unwisely  managed,  they  may  do 
great  injustice  and  arouse  violent  opposition. 

1.  Objects  of  Examinations. 

1.  To  Test  Ability.— It  is  important  to  determine  the 
comparative  standing  of  .pupils  and  test  their  ability  to 


SCHOOL   WORK.  139 

tell  AvLal  they  know.  This,  it  may  be  argued,  can  best 
be  done  in  recitation.  The  pupil  it  must,  however,  be 
remembered,  makes  special  preparation  for  the  lesson, 
and  under  a  faulty  system  of  teaching  may  forget  within 
a  month  most  of  what  he  seemed  to  know  during  the 
time  of  reciting.  The  examination  requires  him  to 
know  and  continue  to  know. 

2.  To  Act  as  an  Incentive  to  Thorough  Work. — The 
student  who  expects  an  examination  at  the  close  of  the 
month  or  at  any  other  time  feels,  even  if  he  have  no 
higher  motive  for  study,  that  his  knowledge  must  not 
only  be  thorough,  but  that  it  must  also  be  retained.  The 
examination,  to  him,  is  one  of  the  important  ends  of 
study,  and  is  a  powerful  incentive  in  urging  him 
forward. 

3.  To  Secure  Data. — While  the  examination  is  not 
always  a  true  test  of  ability,  and  does  not  always  give 
reliable  data  upon  which  to  classify  and  make  promotions, 
it  is  nevertheless,  in  the  main,  useful  in  connection  witli 
the  record  of  the  pupil's  class-standing  during  the  term 
as  a  basis  on  which  to  promote  from  one  class  to  another. 

4.  To  Arouse  Interest. — In  public  schools,  particularly 
in  rural  districts,  examinations  are  frequently  found  use- 
ful in  creating  a  school  sentiment  among  the  people.  The 
ordinary  class  exercises  have  little  in  them  of  interest  to 
the  patrons,  but  let  it  be  known  that  a  sharp  competitive 
contest  is  in  prospect,  and  both  their  curiosity  and  their 
interest  will  be  at  once  aroused. 

2.  Scope  of  the  Examination. 

The  ends  to  be  attained  by  school  examinations  deter- 
mine in  a  measure  the  scope  and  character  of  these  tests. 


140  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

1.  They  should  be  General  in  Character.— They  should 
not  (leal  in  teelnilealities  and  minor  faets.  The  exam- 
iner siiows  not  only  his  good  sense,  but  usually  also  hi^ 
sciiolarship,  in  the  examination.  The  thorough  scholar, 
^vll()  has  learned  the  valuable  truth  that  tlie  unimportant 
facts  and  details  in  connection  with  every  science  are  al- 
most infinite  in  number  and  variety,  confines  himself  in 
Ins  examination  to  questions  on  the  general  principles  and 
most  inij)ortant  fjicts,  never  calling  for  those  of  minor 
importance.  He  leaves  these  to  the  man  who,  having 
no  comprehensive  knowledge,  builds  his  reputation  on 
liis  recollection  of  mystic  dates  and  figures,  puzzles,  and 
technicalities. 

2.  The  Examination  should  be  Thorough. — It  should  be 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  test  the  pupil's  knowledge  thor- 
oughly as  far  as  he  has  studied.  The  questions  ought, 
as  in  the  recitation,  to  be  put  in  clear,  definite  language, 
that  the  pupil  may  have  no  difficulty  in  determining  what 
his  answer  should  be.  If  problems,  they  should  be  simple, 
but  such  as  involve  essential  principles,  omitting  all  such 
as  require  tedious  and  complicated  work,  as  well  as  those 
on  which  authorities  may  be  at  variance. 

3.  They  should  Test  the  Pupil's  Power  as  a  Thinker. — 
Students  frequently  memorize  without  thinking,  and  in 
the  haste  of  school  work  the  teacher  occasionally  fails 
to  detect  the  error.  Questions  involving  the  same  prin- 
ciples taught  to  the  pupils  during  the  term  should  be 
given  from  textbooks  not  in  the  possession  of  those  to 
be  examined.  Original  questions  also  might  be  given, 
but  still  such  as  embrace  the  principles  taught,  and  which 
would  fairly  test  the  pupil's  familiarity  witli  those  princi- 
ples and  his  ability  to  make  the  application. 


SCHOOL    WORK.  HI 

4.  Examinations  should  be  of  such  a  Character  as  to 
Prevent  Special  Preparation. — All  s})ecial  preparation  for 
examination  tends  to  foster  shallow  scholarship,  which  is 
worthless  as  soon  as  the  examination  has  passed.  Every 
examiner  should  discourage  this  special  training  by  ex- 
amining Avholly  on  questions  involving  general  princi- 
ples. This  cramming  for  examination  defeats  the  most 
important  objects  of  education,  and  dwarfs  the  mind 
instead  of  giving  it  culture. 

5.  Examinations  should  be  of  such  a  Character  as  to 
Discourage  mere  Memory  Culture. — The  question  to  be 
reached  is  not,  Can  the  pupil  tell  what  the  book  says 
on  this  subject?  but,  Does  he  understand  the  subject, 
and  can  he  express  his  thoughts  in  appropriate  lan- 
guage?— not.  Can  he  answer  all  questions  given  in  the 
book?  but.  Can  he  answer  all  questions  that  are  based 
on  the  principles  he  has  studied? 

'S.  Frequency  of  Examinations. 

The  times  for  examinations  must  be  regulated  to  some 
extent  by  the  character  of  the  school.  As  to  the  question 
of  stated  or  regular  time  for  examination,  it  is  a  debatable 
one.  The  high-pressure  principle  of  examining  all  the 
schools  of  a  district  at  the  end  of  every  month  must  be 
the  device  of  some  one  whose  highest  idea  of  the  bus- 
iness of  a  Superintendent  is  to  worry  pupils  and  send 
teachers  to  premature  graves.  There  is  no  good  reason 
why  either  pupils  or  teachers  should  be  compelled  to 
suffer  an  indignity  of  this  kind. 

The  objections  to  fixed  times  for  examinations  are  that 
B^^me  pu])ilswill  make  special  preparation  in  spite  of  the 
greatest  precaution  of  their  teachers;  that  they  are  not 


N2  SCHOOL   MANAGEMEXr. 

usually  well  prepared  at  other  times;  that  the  auxicty 
while  awaiting  the  approaching  examination  of"ten  works 
serious  harm  to  both  mind  and  body  of  the  suffering  can- 
didate. Many  a  student  has  become  enfeebled  for  life 
from  the  dread  and  feverish  excitement  incident  to  an 
approaching  examination. 

The  strong  argument  in  favor  of  unannounced  exam- 
inations is  that  pupils  must  be  prepared  at  all  times,  and 
therefore  their  knowledge  is  more  thorough  than  it  would 
be  under  other  circumstances.  Every  lesson  is  studied 
with  the  understanding  that  it  may  be  called  for  at  any 
time,  and  both  teacher  and  pupil  become  more  thorough 
in  their  work.  The  teacher  ought  to  examine  whenever 
he  feels  that  the  school  or  the  class  will  be  benefited,  but 
the  examinations  ought  not  to  be  so  frequent  as  to  become 
oi)pressive. 

4.  Method  of  Examining. 

Examinations  may  be  either  oral  or  written,  or  both 
oral  and  written.  Each  of  these  methods  has  its  advo- 
cates. The  method  must  depend  somewhat  on  the  study 
in  which  the  test  is  to  be  made. 

The  oral  metliod  in  small  classes  has  this  advantage 
Dver  the  written,  that  it  may  be  made  much  more  search- 
ing and  thorough  in  a  given  time;  but  in  large  classes  the 
advantage  in  this  respect  is  greatly  in  favor  of  the  writ- 
ten method.  The  Avritten  method  gives  the  examiner  a 
greater  amount  of  work  to  do,  and  the  work  of  ex- 
amining and  inspecting  the  papers  sometimes  becomes 
oppressive. 

A  second  advantage  of  the  Avritten  method  of  exam- 
hiation  is,  that  the  same  questions  may  be  given  to  all  the 


SCHOOL    WORK.  143 

j)iij)ils,  and  thus  the  comparative  ability  of  tnc  different 
persons  examined  may  be  more  accurately  determined. 

In  general,  the  written  method  of  examination  is  much 
to  be  preferred  to  the  oral,  but  a  combination  of  the  two 
is  advisable,  particularly  when  spectators  are  present  to 
witness  the  work. 

Caution. — Whatever  the  method  pursued,  the  teacher 
should  insist  rigidly  that  there  shall  be  no  help  either 
offered  or  received,  and  that  the  student  who  helps  shall 
be  punished  quite  as  severely  as  the  one  who  receives  the 
help,  both  being  guilty  of  wrong. 

5.  Length  of  Exainin.itions. 

The  length  of  time  occupied  in  an  examination  will 
depend  somewhat  on  the  ability  of  the  teacher  as  an 
examiner.  A  teacher  who  is  an  exjiert  in  the  work  of 
examining  will  often  give  the  candidates  a  fuller  and 
fairer  test  with  ten  questions  than  one  less  skilled  would 
with  fifty. 

Examinations  usually  are  too  long  and  tedious.  Much 
time  might  be  saved  to  both  teacher  and  pupils  by  short- 
ening them.  To  spend  a  half  day  in  the  examination  of 
a  class  in  a  single  branch  is  no  less  cruel  than  unwise. 
Examinations  never  should  be  continued  so  long  as  to 
tire  those  who  are  examined.  When  protracted  to  such 
a  length  that  pupils  become  nervous  and  fatigued,  ex- 
aminations become  injurious  and  fail  as  a  test,  because 
the  pupils  have  not  sufficient  mental  vigor  to  think 
clearly. 

Suggestions. — 1.  Examine  only  on  the  main  points; 
do  not  dwell  on  particulars.  Prepare  your  questions  so 
that  they  may  be  of  a  general  nature. 


144  SCHOOL    iMAXAGEMENT. 

2.  rrcvcnt  s}X'cial  preparation  for  examiuatioii  by 
giving  no  notice  of  the  time.  Hold  your  examinatious 
at  irregular  intervals. 

3.  Let  your  pupils  occasionally  examine  one  another's 
papers ;  this  saves  work  for  the  teacher  and  makes  the 
pupils  critical. 

4.  Do  not  worry  your  pupils  by  telling  them  con- 
stantly that  thoy  are  likely  to  fail. 

5.  As  the  examination  for  promotion  approaches,  do 
not  crowd  your  pupils  and  excite  them.  Kather  train 
tlicm  to  be  cool  and  confident. 

6.  Do  not  classify  and  promote  on  examination  per- 
centages alone.  Some  of  the  brightest  fail  on  examina- 
tion day  on  account  of  confusion  and  excitement. 

7.  Occasionally  give  a  short  oral  examination  of  a 
few  minutes  without  any  notice,  that  pupils  may  always 
have  their  knowledge  at  command. 

8.  Do  not  make  it  your  chief  aim  to  promote  all  the 
pupils  in  a  class.  Every  class  has  its  weak  mem- 
bers. 

9.  Do  not  be  in  a  hurry.  Give  your  pupils  plenty  of 
time.  Let  them  tJiink,  and  work  slowly,  so  that  they 
may  tell  what  they  know. 

10.  Do  not  insist  that  they  take  up  the  questions  in 
order.  Let  them  answer  those  they  can  answer  most 
readily  first,  and  turn  to  the  more  difficult  ones  wheu 
they  feel  they  have  more  time. 

IV.  Reviews. 

The  chief  objects  of  reviews  are  the  two  following: 
1.  They  Make  the  Pupil's  Knowledge  more  Thorough,— 
Frequent  reviews  tend  to  make  knowledge  more  thor- 


SCHOOL   WORK.  145 

oughly  oiu"  own.  The  mere  recalling  assists  us  to  re- 
member. But,  in  addition  to  tins,  studying  with  the 
view  of  having  our  knowledge  recalled  is  an  incentive 
in  itself  to  more  diligent  work.  Reviews  are  beneficial, 
theirefore,  because  they  assist  in  fixing  knowledge  in  the 
mind. 

2.  They  Test  the  Pupil's  Knowledge. — Reviews  are  in 
a  certain  sense  a  sort  of  examination,  and  by  this  exam- 
ination the  pupil's  knowledge  is  constantly  tested,  the 
frequency  of  the  test  being  measured  by  the  frequency 
of  the  review.  In  some  respects  these  review-tests  are 
really  more  beneficial  than  a  formal  examination. 

Frequency  of  Reviews. 

As  to  the  frequency  and  regularity  of  reviews,  there 
is  room  for  great  difference  of  opinion.  Many  teachers 
prefer  a  weekly,  while  others  advocate  a  monthly,  re- 
view. There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  really  why  a 
slight  review  should  not  take  place  daily.  Every  day's 
acquisition  of  knowledge  should  be  so  clear  in  the  mind 
of  the  learner  that  he  need  not  fear  to  be  questioned  on 
the  day  or  the  week  following.  Unquestionably,  the 
most  valuable  reviews  are  those  which  are  held  daily, 
though  to  these  it  may  be  well  to  add  the  weekly  review, 
in  which  only  the  essential  and  most  important  part  of 
the  week's  work  should  be  discussed  or  examined. 

There  need  be  no  formal  method  of  conducting  these 
reviews,  apart  from  the  ordinary  method  of  questioning, 
though  the  teacher  should  always  hold  himself  in  readi- 
ness to  correct  any  errors  he  may  detect  or  answer  any 
question  that  may  be  asked  on  points  not  fully  or  clearly 
comprehended  by  the  pupils. 

10 


14G  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

y.  School  Reports. 

The  following  may  be  claimed  as  the  chief  advan- 
tages of  school  reports : 

1.  They  are  Valuable  as  Incentives  to  Study  and  Good 
Conduct. — The  pupil  who  feels  that  his  standing  for  the 
week  or  the  month  is  to  be  made  the  basis  of  a  report  to 
his  parents  or  to  the  school  authorities  is  cautious  to 
make  an  effort  to  secure  the  best  report  possible. 

2.  They  are  Valuable  in  Furnishing  Information. — 
Parents  particularly  have  a  right  to  know  how  their 
children  progress  and  how  they  behave  while  in  school. 
Reports  are  valuable  in  furnishing  this  information. 

3.  They  are  an  Excellent  Means  of  Interesting  Parents 
in  School  Work. — Few  parents  take  so  little  interest  in 
their  children's  success  as  to  care  nothing  for  their  wel- 
fare and  advancement.  The  report  of  a  child's  success 
or  failure  is  a  spur  to  the  parent,  and  he  examines  the 
report  and  prizes  the  marked  advancement  quite  as 
highly  sometimes  as  the  child  himself. 

The  Parties  to  Whom  Reports  Should  be  Made. 

1.  Directors  or  Trustees. — By  the  laws  of  some  States 
every  teacher  is  compelled  at  the  close  of  a  school  month 
to  make  his  report  to  the  Board  of  Directors  or  Trustees, 
through  the  Secretary,  that  these  officers  may  have  defi- 
nite information  relative  to  the  school. 

2.  Parents. — This  is  probably  the  most  important  and 
beneficial  report  that  the  teacher  could  make.  Few, 
liowever,  find  sufficient  leisure  from  their  school  duties 
to  make  a  monthly  report  of  this  charactei'. 

3.  The  Newspapers. — A  conscientious  report  made  to 


SCHOOL   WOEK.  147 

tlie  newspapers  of  the  town  in  which  a  school  is  located 
often  proves  of  much  advantage  to  pupils.  There 
are  few  who  are  not  anxious  to  find  their  names  among 
those  deemed  worthy  of  being  reported  to  the  public  for 
advancement  and  correct  deportment. 

4.  The  Superintendent. — It  would  be  a  good  plan  for 
teachers,  as  an  incentive  to  pupils,  to  report  to  the 
County  Superintendent  or  School  Commissioner,  at  the 
end  of  the  month,  the  names  of  those  reaching  a  cer- 
tain standard.  A  record  should  be  kept  by  this  officer, 
from  which  occasional  reports  could  with  profit  be  made 
to  the  county  newspapers,  and  tlie  whole  community 
might  thus  be  kept  awake  to  the  importance  of  edu- 
cation. 

These  reports,  which  should  contain  a  record  of  the 
pupil's  attendance,  deportment,  and  class-standing,  could 
be  made  from  the  teacher's  records. 

Cautions. — 1.  Mark  on  merit  alone. 

2.  Give  earnest  effort  its  due  importance  in  recording 
the  marks. 

3.  Mark  those  specially  well  who  are  original  and 
think  for  themselves. 

4.  Mark  in  the  student's  favor  rather  than  against 
him. 

5.  Do  not  be  rigidly  severe  in  marking. 

6.  Have  no  favorites  when  you  mark. 

7.  Make  allowance  for  unconscious  errors. 

8.  ]\Iark  each  branch  and  each  topic  on  its  own  merits, 
not  on  neatness  or  spelling  or  some  other  hobby  of  your 
own. 

9.  Mark  on  general  questions  and  general  principles, 
not  on  technicalities  or  book-language. 


148  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

10.  ^rnik  on  a  fixed  standard  or  basis. 
As  to  ihe  frequency  of  marking,  observe  the  following 
cdudons: 

1.  Do  not  M^nstc  time  by  marking  daily. 

2.  Do  not  let  marking  interfere  with  your  proper 
work,  teaching. 

3.  Do  not  use  the  time  of  tT»<e  class  in  stopping  the 
recitation  to  mark  the  standing  of  a  pupil. 

4.  Do  not  mark  so  frequently  that  the  pupils  will 
strive  to  recite  for  the  marks  they  get. 

5.  Mark  when  3'ou  are  free  to  give  it  your  attention, 
that  you  may  not  interfere  with  other  school  work. 

Su^estions  on  School  Beports. 

1.  Mark  on  some  scale  which  can  be  converted  to  a 
scale  having  100  representing  perfection.  This  is  the 
simplest  and  most  satisfactory. 

2.  Pupils  should  not  be  permitted  to  examine  the 
record  in  order  to  see  other  marks  than  their  own, 
though  it  would  be  entirely  proper  to  tell  them  their 
own  marks. 

3.  Should  a  number  of  pupils  have  low  marks,  it  is 
best  not  to  show  them  the  record,  but  sim])ly  explain 
to  them  that  their  work  is  not  entirely  satisfactory,  and 
encourage  them  to  do  better. 

4.  In  sending  reports  to  parents  it  is  thought  best  by 
many  not  to  send  the  exact  figures,  but  report  simply 
excellent,  good,  medium,  or  poor,  keeping  the  figures  or 
marks  for  the  information  of  the  teacher  alone. 

5.  Marking  your  pupils  once  a  week  will  prove  satis- 
factory generally,  and  it  will  save  much  labor  as  compared 
with  the  plan  of  marking  daily. 


SCHOOL   WORK.  149 

6.  Let  the  average  of  the  pupil's  work  form  the  basis 
of  his  marks  for  the  week. 

yi.  Graduation  in  Public  Schools. 

None  question  the  importance  and  benefits  of  gradua- 
tion from  high  schools.  May  not  graduation  from  rural 
schools,  when  a  specified  course  of  study  has  been  com- 
pleted, be  of  equal  importance,  particularly  as  an  incen- 
tive to  study  and  regular  attendance  ?  In  favor  of  such 
a  plan  the  following  arguments  may  be  advanced : 

1.  Graduation  from  Ungraded  Schools  will  be  an  Incen- 
tive to  Regular  Attendance. — A  regular  course  of  study 
having  been  adoj^ted,  the  chance  is  open  to  every  child 
in  the  district  to  reach  that  stage  of  progress  which  shall 
entitle  him  to  graduation.  Most  pupils  will  appreciate 
the  fact  that  the  best  work  can  be  done  only  when  they 
are  regular  in  daily  attendance  at  school. 

2.  Graduation  Promotes  Study. — The  same  arguments 
urged  in  the  preceding  paragraph  might  be  offered  in 
support  of  this  proposition.  The  prospect  of  graduat- 
ing is  a  powerful  incentive  to  steady  application  and 
diligent  study. 

3.  Graduation  Tends  to  Systematize  the  School  Work. — 
Pupils,  feeling  that  they  have  an  object  to  accomplish, 
will  be  more  apt  to  enter  school  at  the  beginning  of 
the  term,  their  attendance  will  be  more  regular,  and  the 
school  work  can  be  performed  more  nearly  in  accordance 
with  a  fixed  programme. 

4.  Graduation  will  Tend  to  Fix  Limits  to  the  School  Work. 
— There  is  nothing  at  present  in  the  school  laws  of  the 
different  States  to  prevent  pupils  entering  school  at  five 
or  six  years  of  age  and  continuing  up  to  the  age  of  eigh- 


150  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

teen  or  twenty.  A  course  of  study,  with  giaduation  as 
the  crowning  feature,  will,  through  regularity  of  attend- 
ance and  diligent  study,  enable  the  pupils  to  do  more  be- 
tween the  ages  of  eight  and  sixteen  years  than  is  now  done 
between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty. 

5.  Graduation  will  Increase  the  Efficiency  of  our  Schools. 
— This  will  be  true,  partly  because  the  work  will  be  bet- 
ter done  in  a  shorter  time,  and  partly  because  the  public 
sentiment  of  every  community  will  be  in  favor  of  more 
thorough  work.  Hundreds  in  every  district  will  be  in- 
duced to  take  a  full  course  of  study  who  under  the  present 
system  care  for  nothing  but  a  superficial  knowledge  of  any 
of  the  branches. 

6.  Graduation  wiU  Cause  Better  Teaching  and  More  Care- 
ful Supervision. — Every  competent  teacher  will,  under  the 
new  system,  strive  to  compete  with  his  associates.  A  ben- 
eficial rivalry  will  exist  in  every  district.  Such  has  been 
the  case  with  the  various  ward  schools  in  cities,  and  such 
must  necessarily  be  the  result  in  rural  districts.  The 
supervision  of  the  work  of  teaching  will  also  be  more 
thorough,  because  better  systematized  and  capable  of 
producing  better  results. 

7.  A  System  of  Graduation  will  Lead  to  the  Establish- 
ment of  Township  High  Schools. — Pupils  avIio  have  com- 
pleted the  course  of  study  in  the  graded  schools  will  in 
general  have  acquired  such  a  love  for  study  and  such 
a  desire  for  more  extended  knowledge  that  they  will 
demand  something  beyond  the  common  country  school. 
The  result  will  be  the  establishment  of  central  high 
schools  in  each  township  where  the  population  is  suffi- 
ciently dense  to  justify  it,  at  which  a  higher  course  of 
study  may  be  pursued  and  completed.      The  principal 


SCHOOL   WORK.  151 

of  this  school  might  act  as  General  Superintendent  of 
the  other  township  schools,  thus  affording  a  closer  super- 
vision of  them  and  their  work  than  is  possible  under  the 
present  system,  and  relieving  the  County  Superintendent 
or  other  educational  officer  of  a  part  of  his  duties. 

Examination  for  Graduation. — The  questions  for  exam- 
ination preparatory  to  graduating  from  the  public  un- 
graded schools  should  be  prepared  by  the  supervising 
officer  of  the  county.  If  possible,  all  the  examinations 
in  a  district  should  take  place  on  the  same  day.  It 
would  be  profitable  to  appropriate  the  last  two  Saturdays 
before  the  close  of  the  school  to  this  work,  or  where 
schools  close  at  irregular  times,  then  the  two  Saturdays 
near  the  time  of  closing  the  schools  having  the  longest 
term. 

The  examining  committee  should  consist  of  disinter- 
ested persons  of  intelligence  selected  by  the  School  Board 
of  the  district  or  by  the  county  superintending  officer. 
The  teacher  or  the  members  of  the  examining  committee 
should  then  grade  the  papers  on  which  the  questions  are 
answered,  and  their  report  should  be  submitted  to  the 
county  school  officer,  who  should  attach  his  signature  to 
a  proper  certificate  or  diploma  to  be  presented  to  each 
successful  applicant  for  examination.  Following  all  this 
might  come  graduation  day,  when  the  pupils  might  cel- 
ebrate the  occasion  by  appropriate  exercises,  consisting 
of  declamations,  recitations,  readings,  essays,  music,  etc., 
for  the  entertainment  of  their  friends,  and  then  receive 
their  diplomas  as  evidence  that  they  have  completed  the 
course  of  study  prescribed  and  have  passed  the  exam- 
ination with  credit. 


152  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

YII.  A  Course  of  Study  for  Couuti-y  Schools. 

A  system  of  graduation  necessitates  a  course  of  study 
to  be  pursued.  This  ought  to  be  uniform,  not  only 
throughout  the  township,  but  also  throughout  the  county. 
Indeed,  if  it  were  uniform  throughout  the  State  it  would 
be  still  better.  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason,  for 
instance,  why  each  local  high  school  in  the  various  cities 
should  have  its  own  course  of  study.  This  diversity  of 
the  courses  of  study  in  the  various  cities  makes  the  high- 
school  graduate  an  indefinite  quantity.  These  courses 
of  study  extend  all  the  way  from  a  grammar-school  to  a 
college  standard,  so  that  the  title  has  no  definite  meaning. 
To  make  it  have  a  definite  significance  there  should  be 
uniformity.  The  same  is  true  of  the  course  of  study  to 
be  pursued  in  ungraded  schools.  It  should  be  uniform 
throughout  the  county,  and  if  possible  throughout  the 
State.  The  plan  of  adopting  a  course  of  study  for  a 
county  is  not  only  feasible,  but  it  has  also  been  found 
eminently  practical  and  useful  wherever  the  plan  has 
been  tried. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

School  Ethics. 

School  Ethics  treats  of  the  rights  and  duties  of  all 
persons  connected  with  the  school.  It  includes  the  du- 
ties of  teacher,  pupils,  and  school  ojica's. 

I.  Duties  of  the  Teacher. 

The  teacher's  duties  are  not  only  manifold,  but  they 
are  also  of  great  importance.  Taking  upon  himself  for 
the  parents,  as  he  does,  the  responsibility  of  training  the 
children  under  his  care,  he  represents  all  the  families  of 
the  community,  and  his  duties  are  chiefly  those  which 
would  otherwise  devolve  upon  the  parents.  He  has, 
however,  duties  not  only  to  the  children  as  his  pupils, 
but  also  to  the  parents,  to  his  profession,  and  to  himself. 

1.  Duties  to  Pupils. — The  duties  of  the  teacher  to  pupils 
consist  in  the  general  nature  of  care-taking  and  provid- 
ing for  their  wants  in  an  intellectual,  a  moral,  a  'physical, 
and  an  cesthetic  sense. 

1  Intellectual  Wants. — Two  of  the  chief  intellectual 
wants  of  pupils  are  Knowledge  and  Discipline  of  Hind. 
These  are,  therefore,  the  wants  which  the  teacher  must 
be  prepared  to  supply.  It  is  his  duty  not  only  to  com- 
municate knowledge,  but  to  communicate  such  knowledge 
as  will  be  of  most  worth  to  the  child  as  he  grows  to 

153 


151  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

nianliood,  and  to  communicate  it  in  such  a  way  tl)at  tlie 
child  not  only  may,  but  also  that  he  must,  understand. 
It  is  the  teacher's  duty  also  to  discipline  the  mind  of  the 
child.  He  must  conduct  his  work  of  instruction  and 
recitation  in  such  a  manner  as  to  develop  the  child's  in- 
tellectual strength.  His  methods  must  be  such  as  will 
train  the  child  to  think,  ask  questions,  become  inquis- 
itive and  anxious  to  learn,  that  it  may  thus  be  enabled 
to  acquire  mental  acumen. 

2.  Moral  Wants. — The  teacher  owes  it  to  his  pupils  to 
make  them  good  men  and  women.  This  is  quite  as  im- 
portant as  to  make  them  scholarly.  It  has  been  argued 
against  education  that  it  makes  men  rogues,  but  this 
cannot  be  said  of  the  education  that  gives  culture  to 
the  child's  moral  as  well  as  his  intellectual  nature.  An 
intellectual  giant  without  a  moral  nature  on  which  to  base 
his  intellectual  strength,  and  to  serve  as  a  guide  and  con- 
trolling power,  is  an  intellectual  monstrosity.  Such  men 
are  dangerous  to  the  life  of  a  nation. 

Moral  instiniction  is  needed  in  all  our  schools.  The 
methods  of  imparting  it  are  many.  It  may  be  imparted 
in  the  shape  of  biography,  holding  up  the  example  of 
the  good  and  great  of  all  times  for  the  emulation  of  the 
children.  It  may  be  imparted  by  direct  instruction,  or 
in  the  shape  of  short,  interesting  stories,  in  which  the 
moral  to  be  taught  is  put  in  the  practical  shape  of  illus- 
tration. In  whatever  manner  the  instruction  be  im- 
parted, the  lesson  must  be  made  interesting  and  impres- 
sive ;  and  it  will  serve  to  elevate  the  child's  nature  and 
prepare  him  for  a  fuller  appreciation  of  his  responsi- 
bilities as  a  future  citizen. 


SCHOOL   ETHICS.  155 

Religious  instruction  may  be  imparted  in  a  similar 
manner,  but  care  must  be  taken  that  everything  of  a  sec- 
tarian or  denominational  character  be  strictly  avoided. 
Many  an  over-zealous  Christian  worker  has  defeated  the 
■whole  end  of  both  moral  and  religious  culture  by  thrust- 
ing his  own  religious  views  in  the  face  of  his  pupils,  and 
thus  arousing  the  ire  of  all  who  belonged  to  other  sects 
and  denominations.  Where  the  religious  views  of  the 
teacher  are  likely  to  offend  or  cause  discord  in  the  school 
work,  it  were  better  to  leave  them  unexpressed. 

3.  Physical  Wants. — The  chief  duty  of  the  teacher  as 
to  the  physical  wants  of  his  pupils  is  to  see  that  their 
health  is  preserved,  and  that  in  their  growth  their  in- 
tellectual tasks  be  of  such  a  nature  as  not  to  interfere 
with  healthy  physical  development.  It  is  a  matter  of 
the  first  importance  that  all  children  of  our  land  should 
have  healthy  physical  organizations.  No  more  pitiable 
sight  confronts  us  than  that  of  intellectual  strength  de- 
veloped at  the  expense  of  our  children's  health.  It  is 
better  that  they  should  be  good  animals  with  moderate 
intellectual  culture  than  that  intellectual  streno-th  should 

O 

be  secured  and  health  be  lost  for  a  lifetime  as  a  result  of 
the  acquisition. 

Tlie  school-house  and  its  surroundings  'should  be  made 
conducive  to  health.  This  will  require  that  the  teacher 
give  attention  to  the  lighting,  the  heating,  and  the  ven- 
tilation of  the  house ;  also,  to  the  condition  of  the  floor, 
the  walls,  the  furniture,  and  everything  else  connected 
with  the  school  that  may  by  carelessness  or  neglect  be 
likely  to  interfere  with  the  health  or  the  comfort  of 
the  pupils. 


156  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

The  personal  habits  of  the  pupils  also  will  need  the 
attention  of  the  teacher.  The  children  will  need  con- 
stiuit  and  oft-repeated  caution  with  regard  to  their  be- 
coming overheated  and  attempting  to  cool  oif  suddenly; 
also  with  regard  to  their  sitting  in  the  school-room  with 
wet  or  damp  clothing,  sitting  in  drafts  of  air,  going  out 
of  doors  without  proper  protection  from  heat  or  cold ; 
with  regard  to  personal  cleanliness,  offensive  personal 
habits,  such  as  spitting  on  the  floor,  picking  the  teeth, 
and  the  like, — all  of  which  ought  to  be  avoided.  They 
will  need  urging  at  times  to  induce  them  to  take  proper 
exercise  and  enough  of  it;  and  particularly  will  those 
need  most  urging  who  have  the  most  need  of  exercise 
and  the  least  inclination  to  exert  themselves. 

Studies  should  not  Interfere  with  Health. — Care  must 
be  taken  that  the  children's  intellectual  tasks  be  not  so 
severe  that  the  child's  health  is  endangered,  either  by 
overwork  or  by  interfering  with  play  and  exercise.  These 
the  child  must  have,  whether  he  acquires  intellectual  cul- 
ture or  not.  Care  must  be  taken  also  that  the  intellectual 
tasks  be  not  permitted  to  break  down  the  child's  nervous 
organization.  Nothing  tends  more  directly  to  this  end  than 
the  constant  fret  and  worry  incident  to  an  approaching  ex- 
amination, particulai'ly  when  a  fretful  teacher  adds  to  the 
annoyance  by  constant  predictions  of  failure. 

4.  Esthetic  Wants.— ^Esthetic  culture  is  necessary  in  all 
schools,  and  possibly  in  no  institutions  is  the  need  so  in- 
tensely felt  as  in  our  American  schools.  From  the  slab- 
seated,  plank-lined  log  school  hut  of  a  half  century  ago 
to  the  handsomely  curtained  and  beautifully  ornamented 
school-houses  found  in  many  districts  at  the  present  time 


SCHOOL    ETHICS.  157 

tlie  distance  is  very  great.  Tlie  imjirovenient  is  remark- 
able, but  it  is  only  a  foretaste  of  what  we  shall  witness  in 
the  future. 

^Esthetic  Culture  Aids  in  DisclpUne. — The  child  who 
is  surrounded  by  beauty  grows  to  love  the  beautiful  and 
becomes  respectful.  Place  him  in  a  school-room  with  un- 
painted  pine  benches  and  desks,  and  he  is  sure  to  mark 
them  with  his  pencil  and  practice  on  them  with  his  jack- 
knife,  and  they  are  excellent  material  for  the  purpose. 
Give  him  neat  furniture,  polished  and  beautified,  and 
he  keeps  both  knife  and  pencil  in  his  pocket.  He  has 
an  inborn  love  for  the  beautiful,  and  he  will  not  mar  it 
unless  his  nature  has  been  degraded  by  his  associations  or 
by  faulty  teaching.  Surround  a  child  with  neat  school  fur- 
niture and  wall-decorations,  such  as  will  cultivate  his  taste, 
and  you  Avill  find  that  his  nature  will  undergo  a  change 
and  he  will  act  in  harmony  with  his  surroundings. 

jEsthetiG  culture  has  been  neglected,  partly  because  we 
have  been  too  busy  to  give  our  attention  to  the  aesthetic 
nature  of  our  children.  Our  commerce,  our  railroads, 
our  manufactories,  our  greed  to  make  money  and  become 
rich,  have  taken  up  our  time,  and  the  aesthetic  culture  of 
our  children  has  had  but  little  attention.  "We  need  bet- 
ter taste,  but  to  possess  better  taste  our  love  for  the  beau- 
tiful must  be  cultivated.  To  cultivate  a  love  for  the 
beautiful  our  children  must  be  brought  into  the  presence  of 
the  beautiful,  and  both  our  school-rooms  and  our  homes 
must  be  beautified.  The  greed  for  money-getting  must  be 
subdued  for  a  while,  and  the  beauty  of  both  Art  and  Na- 
ture must  be  made  to  miuistei'  to  the  wants  of  our  children. 

2.  Duties  to  the  Community. — The  teacher  has  duties 


158  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

to  his  jiatroiis  and  to  the  community  in  general.  The 
jxnrents  of  his  pupils  are  often  more  deeply  interested 
in  iiis  work  and  the  success  of  their  children  than  are 
the  pupils  themselves.  His  duties  to  his  patrons  include 
in  a  certain  sense  his  duties  to  his  pupils,  and  these  need 
not  here  be  repeated.  What  he  owes  to  his  pupils  in  the 
matter  of  culture  he  owes  to  his  patrons  as  their  parents. 
But  he  has  also  other  duties  to  the  community. 

1.  He  should  Interest  the  Commimity  in  the  School  Work. 
— To  succeed  well  in  his  work  the  teacher  must  interest 
not  only  his  school,  but  also  the  community  in  which 
lie  laboi's.  This  he  can  best  do  by  interesting  the  chil- 
dren, who  in  turn  will  interest  the  parents  in  the  school 
work.  There  are  various  ways  in  wdiich  this  may  be 
done,  but  probably  none  are  so  successful  as  that  of 
suggesting  some  interesting  question  occasionally,  and 
having  the  pupils  ask  their  parents  to  help  them  iu 
finding  the  answer.  Any  question  that  w^ill  set  the 
parents  to  thinking  will  answer  a  good  purpose.  A 
judicious  teacher  can  in  this  way  set  the  whole  com- 
munity to  work  in  search  of  knowledge. 

2.  He  should  Cultivate  the  Acquaintance  of  the  Citizens 
of  the  Community. — The  young  teacher  makes  no  more 
serious  mistake  than  that  of  keeping  aloof  from  the 
companionship  of  his  patrons,  and  he  can  take  no 
shorter  route  for  destroying  his  influence  and  his  use- 
fulness. Teachers  should  mingle  with  the  people  of  the 
neighborhood  in  which  they  teach.  They  can  cultivate 
the  acquaintance  of  their  patrons  in  no  better  way.  The 
teacher  has  duties  to  society  Avhich  he  can  put  aside  only 
at  the  expense  of  his  own  welfare  and  standing.  Teach- 
ing as  a  profession  would  have  more  dignity  and  be  more 


SCHOOL   ETHICS.  159 

respected  if  teachers  felt  more  keenly  the  importance 
of  mingling  with  the  people  of  the  community,  and  cul- 
tivating not  only  their  acquaintance,  but  also  their 
friendship, 

3.  Teachers  sliould  Seek  the  Co-operation  of  their  Pa- 
trons.— Co-operation  not  only  of  the  School  Boards,  but 
also  of  the  patrons,  is  essential  to  success.  The  teacher 
should  be  willing  to  explain  his  plans  to  his  patrons. 
Surely  they  are  interested  in  the  success  and  welfare  of 
their  children,  and  they  will  sanction  and  indorse  plans 
submitted  by  the  teacher  w'hich  they  would  oppose  and 
condemn  if  carried  into  execution  without  consultation 
with  them.  He  may  gain  parental  co-operation  to  some 
extent  also  by  cultivating  the  acquaintance  and  friend- 
ship of  his  patrons,  as  suggested  in  the  preceding  para- 
graj^h.  Encouraging  citizens  to  visit  the  school  will  also 
have  a  good  effect. 

4.  He  should  be  Frank  with  his  Patrons. — "  Honesty  is 
the  best  policy."  The  parent  has  a  right  to  know  the 
actual  standing  and  progress  of  his  child,  and  the  teacher 
has  no  right  to  be  untruthful  about  it  for  the  purpose  of 
either  pleasing  the  parent  or  avoiding  his  displeasure. 
Eight-minded  parents  appreciate  the  kindness  of  the 
teacher  who  gives  a  faithful  and  truthful  report,  though 
it  may  be  an  unpleasant  one.  The  parent  who  inquires 
concerning  the  progress  or  conduct  of  his  child  usually 
makes  the  inquiry  because  he  wants  to  know,  and  he  has 
a  right  to  know,  the  exact  truth. 

5.  He  should  Cultivate  a  School  Sentiment  in  the  Com- 
munity.— This  should  be  done  in  a  modest  way.  He 
should  remember  that  though  his  patrons,  as  a  rule,  may 
not  be  so  well  educated  as  himself,  their  experience  in 


160  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

life  may  be  quite  as  valuable  to  tlieui  as  his  book-learning 
is  to  him.  Many  of  these  patrons  are  persons  of  sound 
judgment,  and  they  will  api)reciate  modest  worth  and 
merit  without  having  their  attention  specially  directed  to 
it.  The  modest  teacher  who  anxiously  and  earnestly 
does  the  best  he  can  to  create  an  educational  sentiment 
in  the  community  will  usually  succeed.  The  teacher 
should  consult  with  the  prominent  citizens,  invite  them 
to  his  school-room,  seek  their  advice  and  aid,  and  through 
them  interest  the  commnnity. 

3.  Duties  to  his  Profession. — Teaching  is  a  profession. 
The  Greater  has  endowed  man  wath  various  mental 
powers  or  faculties.  These  need  training  and  culture, 
that  man  may  be  properly  developed,  and  that  he  may 
acquire  the  full  stature  of  perfect  manhood,  and  thus  fill 
the  place  designed  for  him.  To  cultivate  these  faculties 
is  the  work  of  the  teacher,  and  it  is  a  work  requiring 
not  only  as  great  learning  for  its  proper  performance, 
but  also  as  much  skill,  as  that  of  either  law,  medicine,  or 
theology.  Surely,  there  is  no  calling  in  life  which  has  a 
nobler  work,  nor  any  which  requires  a  more  intricate 
knowledge  of  man's  mental  and  physical  organization. 
It  is  true,  many  assume  to  teach  who  have  neither  the 
requisite  skill  nor  the  requisite  learning  to  do  this  work 
properly.  But  no  profession  is  without  its  quacks  and 
failures.  Not  every  man  that  wields  the  scalpel  is  a  suc- 
cessful surgeon,  nor  every  one  that  enters  the  pulpit  a 
successful  preacher.  Neither  is  every  one  that  pleads 
before  the  court  a  successful  practitioner  at  the  bar.  It 
would  be  unfair,  therefore,  to  expect  all  teachers  to  rise 
to  the  dignity  of  professors  until  all  have  the  proper 


SCHOOL    ETHICS.  161 

]iroparatorv  training  and  scholarship  to  fit  them  for  the 
full  and  faithful  performance  of  their  duty. 

The  teacher  has  certain  duties  to  his  profession.  The 
chief  of  these  arc — 

1.  He  should  Dignify  it  by  his  Scholarship. — No  one 
needs  thorough  scholarship  so  much  as  does  the  teacher. 
Mere  learning  which  lies  in  the  miucl  like  so  much  dry 
lumber  stored  in  an  attic  will  not  suffice;  it  must  be 
knowledge  which  the  possessor  can  recall  and  use  as  oc- 
casion demands ;  it  must  be  a  weapon  which  he  can 
wield  with  effect.  His  scholarship  must  be  liberal,  em- 
bracing a  knowledge  of  much  outside  of  his  special 
work ;  but  as  to  all  incident  to  his  profession  his  knowl- 
edge should  not  only  be  comprehensive,  but  also  that 
of  a  specialist.  There  should  be  nothing  in  connection 
with  his  calling  which  he  should  not  at  least  strive  to 
know.  Much  of  this  knowledge  he  must  gain  by  close 
observation  and  by  exi)erience  in  the  school-room,  but 
this  effort  at  self-culture  will  make  his  knowledge  all 
the  more  reliable,  because  it  makes  him  a  thinker. 

2.  The  Teacher  should  Diguify  his  Profession  by  Ms 
Personal  Character. — The  men  who  engage  in  teaching 
should  be  men  whose  personal  character  is  worthy  of 
imitation.  Not  only  should  they  be  upright  in  conduct, 
but  also  in  speech.  The  principles  they  attempt  to  in- 
still should  be  above  question.  No  man  whose  teach- 
ings cannot  be  strictly  followed,  or  whose  character  and 
habits  cannot  be  profitably  imitated,  should  be  permitted 
to  enter  the  school-room  as  a  teacher. 

3.  The  Teacher  should  Avoid  being  Dogmatic. — Dealing 
with  the  child-mind  as  the  teacher  dues,  no  one  is  in 
greater  danger  than  he  of  putting  too  high  an  estimate 

11 


I(j2  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

on  his  own  ability,  and  of  asserting  liis  opinion  in  snch 
a  manner  as  to  itssunie  that  it  must  be  correct  because  he 
says  it.  Teachers  must  avoid  becoming  opinionated  if 
they  hope  to  have  their  profession  respected.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  that  they  do  not  become  egotistic,  and 
thus  bring  disgrace  and  disrepute  on  their  calling. 

4.  The  Teacher  should  Show  Respect  to  Ms  Fellow- 
Teachers. — The  interests  of  the  profession  demand  this. 
Every  otlier  profession  is  characterized  by  an  esprit  de 
corps  which  lends  dignity  to  that  profession.  Teachers, 
possibly  the  quacks  only,  are  too  often  willing  that  their 
profession  shall  be  made  the  subject  of  all  kinds  of 
witless  and  silly  jokes  and  disrespectful  remarks.  All 
other  professions  defend  the  dignity  and  magnify  the 
importance  of  their  work,  and  it  is  left  for  teachers 
alone  to  hear  their  calling  ridiculed  and  denounced  with- 
out defending  it  and  themselves.  Self-respect  will  make 
us  respect  one  another.  All  jealousy  or  envy  at  others' 
success  must  he  subdued.  No  one  needs  sympathy  more 
than  does  the  teacher,  and  from  no  one  ought  he  to  ex- 
])ect  sympathy  more  than  from  his  fellow-teacher.  The 
interests  both  of  the  individual  and  the  profession, 
therefore,  demand  that  there  shall  be  a  spirit  of  fellow- 
ship and  kindness  among  the  members  of  that  calling. 

5.  The  Teacher  should  Seek  to  Elevate  Ms  Calling. — 
This  may  be  done  in  various  ways.  Prominent  among 
the  moans  of  professional  imjirovement  are — 

a.  Normal  Schools. — The  object  of  tliese  schools  is  the 
pi'(!paration  of  teachers  for  their  ])rofession.  They  bear 
the  same  relation  to  teaching  as  the  various  professional 
schools  bear  to  the  other  learned  professions.  They  do 
not  always  make  successful  teachers  and  disciplinarians, 


SCHOOL   ETHICS.  1G3 

any  more  than  do  medical  colleges  always  make  success- 
ful surgeons  and  physicians,  or  other  professivmal  schools 
make  adepts  in  the  i)rofessions  they  teach ;  but  they  never- 
theless do  a  grand  work  in  teaching  the  principles  which 
underlie  the  whole  work  of  instruction  and  discipline. 
They  have  not  the  power  to  reconstruct  human  organ- 
ization or  reverse  Nature,  and  therefore  cannot  make 
teachers  of  meu  and  women  whose  temperaments  and 
general  mental  characteristics  do  not  fit  them  for  this 
profession ;  and  yet  they  can  help  even  these.  So  im- 
portant is  the  work  they  do  and  so  fully  are  their  merits 
and  efficiency  appreciated  that  they  have  become  recog- 
nized as  government  institutions  in  nearly  all  the  most 
progressive  states  and  nations  of  the  world. 

h.  Teachers'  Institutes.— These,  in  a  measure,  do  similar 
work  to  that  of  the  normal  schools,  but  being  convened 
for  only  a  short  time,  and  being  usually  unclassified,  the 
work  must  necessarily  be  of  a  more  general  character. 
Much  professional  improvement  may  be  gained  from 
the  association  of  teachers  in  this  manner,  but  more 
important  than  this  is  tiie  professional  feeling  which  is 
engendered  and  the  esprit  de  corps  which  is  established. 
The  comparison  of  views  and  methods,  the  mutual  con- 
sultation, and  the  enthusiasm  awakened,  are  most  ben- 
eficial, not  only  to  the  teachers,  but  ultimately  to  the 
schools  also  overM'hich  tiiey  preside.  They  give  to  young 
teachers  a  higher  estimate  of  the  importance  and  mag- 
nitude of  the  work  in  which  they  are  engaged. 

c.  Teachers'  Libraries. — The  teacher  who  docs  not  read 
at  least  some  M'orks  on  the  profession  in  which  he  is  en- 
gaged is  merely  a  quack.  Teachers  ought  to  keep  pace 
with  the  times.     The  non-progressive  teacher  constantly 


]G4  SCHOOL    AlANAOEMEXT. 

retrogrades,  bei'uuse  progress  is  onward.  The  methods  of 
teaehiiig  and  management  to-day  differ  very  greatly  from 
the  methods  and  management  of  twenty-five  years  ago. 
The  teacher,  therefore,  who  does  not  keep  pace  with  the 
times  by  reading  educational  works  and  educational  jour- 
nals does  more  toward  degrading  than  toward  elevating 
his  profession.  There  is  no  teacher,  not  even  the  most 
learned  or  the  most  progressive,  who  may  not  learn  some- 
thing from  the  educational  journals  of  the  day. 

d.  School  Visitation. — Professional  information  may  be 
gained  also  by  visiting  the  schools  of  othei'S.  It  would 
be  economical  for  every  School  Board  to  give  to  each  of 
its  teachers  a  half  day  every  month  for  the  purpose  of 
visiting  other  schools.  No  two  teachers  perform  their 
work  in  the  same  manner.  Visitation  would  enable  a 
teacher  not  only  to  observe  what  is  good  in  others'  teach- 
ing, but  also  to  correct  his  own  errors  by  witnessing  the 
errors  of  others.  Faithful  teachers  are  always  anxious 
to  improve,  and  they  find  school  visitation  in  every  way 
profitable. 

c.  Writing  for  tlie  Press. — Other  professions  as  well  as 
teaching  have  their  journals,  and  the  members  of  those 
professions  find  it  greatly  to  their  advantage  not  only  to 
read  these  journals,  but  also  to  communicate  their  ideas 
through  them  to  the  public.  It  would  greatly  aid  in 
elevating  teaching  to  its  proper  place  if  all  that  origi- 
nate successful  plans  or  try  successful  experiments  would 
cause  them  to  be  knoAvn  to  their  fellow-teachers  through 
the  columns  of  educational  newspapers.  It  is  the  duty 
of  successfid  teachers  to  write  for  the  press,  and  lend 
every  effort  to  elevate  their  profession  to  its  proper 
rank. 


SCriOGI,   ETHICS.  165 

4.  Duties  to  Himself. — The  two  chief  duties  which  the 
teaclier  owes  to  himself  are  The  Care  of  his  Health  and 
Self-  Culture. 

1.  The  Teacher's  Care  of  his  Health. — Few  employments 
are  so  exhaustive  to  both  mind  and  body  as  is  teaching, 
and  there  are  few  callings  in  which  good  health  is  so 
necessary.  The  nature  of  the  work,  combined  with  the 
fact  that  the  teacher  is  confined  to  the  one  room  during 
the  day,  without  sunshine  and  sometimes  in  the  foulest  of 
atmospheres,  has  certainly  much  to  do  with  undermining 
the  teacher's  health.  If  his  personal  habits  conform  to 
the  requirements  of  hygienic  laws,  and  he  preserve  a 
cheerful  temper,  there  is  little  reason  why  any  teacher 
should  be  afflicted  with  ill  health  as  the  result  of  his 
work  in  the  school-room.  Worry  wears  faster  than  work. 
Let  the  teacher,  therefore,  preserve  an  even  temper  and 
conform  strictly  to  the  laws  by  which  health  is  preserved, 
and  he  will  have  little  cause  to  complain  of  the  arduous 
duties  of  the  school-room.  Exercise,  food,  sleep,  air, 
bathing,  and  dress  will  all  need  proper  attention. 

2.  Self-Culture. — The  teacher  should  strive  diligently 
to  improve  himself.  The  nature  of  his  work  demands 
that  his  mind  be  constantly  on  the  alert.  He  is  the  ex- 
ample which  his  pupils  will  imitate,  and  for  their  sake,  as 
well  as  his  own,  his  thoughts  must  be  fresh  and  his  mind 
constantly  supplied  with  the  riches  drawn  from  Nature's 
storehouse  of  knowledge.  It  is  often  said  that  young 
teachers  are  frequently  the  best,-  because  they  are  enthu- 
siastic and  anxious  to  learn,  while  those  who  remain  in 
the  profession  for  a  great  length  of  time  become  in  a 
measure  careless  and  indifferent.  This  may  be  true,  but 
certainly  it  ought  not  to  be  so.     Every  teacher  ought  to 


1G6  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

feci  that  he  has  a  duty  to  hiinsclf  in  tlie  matter  of  self- 
culture  and  self-improvement,  and  that  he  must  be  pro- 
gressive as  a  matter  of  self-interest. 

II.  Duties  of  Pupils. 

The  chief  duties  of  pupils  are — 

1.  Duties  to  Themselves. — These  consist  mainly  of 
study  for  the  sake  of  improvement,  care  of  their  school 
property,  such  as  books,  pencils,  etc.,  care  of  their  cloth- 
ing, and  care  of  their  persons  in  such  manner  as  to  j)re- 
eerve  health. 

2.  Duties  to  One  Another. — These  consist  in  the  respect 
which  they  owe  to  the  rights  of  others.  They  owe  it 
to  their  schoolmates  to  avoid  all  injury  to  either  their 
persons  or  their  property. 

3.  Duties  to  the  Teacher. — It  is  the  duty  of  pupils  to 
be  attentive,  respectful,  and  obedient.  The  teacher's 
property  also  must  not  be  interfered  Avitli  by  pupils. 
They  should  also  have  regard  for  his  personal  comfort. 

4.  Duties  to  School  Officers. — Pupils  owe  respect  to  the 
officers  who  have  charge  of  the  schools.  It  is  their  duty 
also  to  refrain  from  injuring  the  school  property  placed 
in  the  care  of  these  officers. 

5.  Duties  to  Visitors. — These  consist  mainly  in  show- 
ing them  respect  and  courtesy,  and  seeing  that  they  are 
made  comfortable  during  their  visits  to  the  school. 

6.  Duties  to  the  Community. — Pupils  should  avoid  in- 
terfering with  the  comfort  of  those  living  near  the 
school  by  refraining  from  excessive  noise.  They  should 
not  trespass  upon  the  grounds  or  property  of  the  neigh- 
bors, and  should  refrain  from  being  imj^olite  or  dis- 
respectful. 


SCHOOL    ETHICS.  167 

III.  Duties  of  Scliool  Officers. 

The  chief  school  officers  who  come  in  contact  with 
both  tlie  teaciier  and  the  pupils  are  known  variously  in 
different  states  as  School  Directors,  School  Trustees,  and 
Committee-men,  Want  of  space  will  prevent  a  full 
discussion  of  their  duties  here,  hence  we  do  but  little 
more  than  indicate  them. 

1.  They  should  Select  Proper  School  Sites. — This  they 
owe  to  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  children,  whose 
character  is  to  some  extent  moulded  by  the  school 
surroundings. 

2.  They  should  Build  Comfortable  and  Beautiful  School- 
houses. — These,  too,  have  their  influence  in  forming 
character,  and  while  comfort  should  have  due  consider- 
ation, beauty  must  not  be  neglected.  Beautiful  school- 
houses  tend  to  create  higher  ideals  and  promote  nobility 
of  character. 

3.  They  should  Adopt  Proper  TextbooKs. — It  is  a  puz- 
zling question  sometimes  among  many  excellent  text- 
books to  know  what  to  adopt,  but  school  officers  will 
find  the  opinion  of  disinterested  successful  teachers 
always  the  safest  to  follow.  When  good  textbooks, 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  pupils  are  to  be  had,  it  is 
little  less  than  criminal  to  keep  inferior  ones  in  use  for 
the  reason  that  a  change  may  cause  some  expense  to  the 
district.  No  mechanic  uses  worn-out  and  worthless  ma- 
chinery when  he  can  purchase  new  which  will  do  his 
work  better  and  more  satisfactorily. 

4.  They  should  Adopt  Grades  of  Study. — A  course  of 
study  should  be  adopted,  not  only  by  the  school  officers 
of  towns  and  cities,  but  also  by  those  of  rural  districts. 


1G8  SCIIOOr.    MANAGEMENT. 

System  will  do  much  toward  improving  tlio  school.  A 
course  of  study  not  only  for  a  district,  but  for  a  whole 
county,  is  advisable. 

5.  They  should  Employ  Competent  Teachers. — The 
toacliei-s  should  be  well  qualified  in  every  sense,  physi- 
adly,  intellectually,  morally,  and  professionally.  School 
officers  should  secure  the  best  teaching  possible.  If  the 
salaries  they  offer  will  not  command  the  proper  talent 
and  qualifications,  there  is  only  one  remedy,  and  that  is 
to  pay  better  salaries.  Ijow  salaries  will  always  fill  the 
positions  with  incompetent  and  unworthy  applicants. 

6.  They  should  Supervise  and  Visit  the  Schools. — 
School  officers  are  the  representatives  of  the  people,  and 
it  becomes  their  duty  to  see  that  the  school  work  is  done 
in  the  best  possible  manner.  They  should  visit  the 
schools  frequently,  both  for  the  purj)ose  of  witnessing  the 
teacher's  work  and  for  the  purpose  of  giving  teacher  and 
pupils  encouragement.  They  should  have  the  teacher 
feel  that  their  visits  are  friendly  calls  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cheering  and  encouraging,  not  for  faultfinding. 
No  man  is  so  unfit  to  be  a  Director  or  Trustee  as  one 
who  feels  it  his  duty  to  gnunble  and  find  fault. 

7.  They  should  Encourage  Educational  Sentiment  in  the 
Community. — No  persons  have  greater  power  than  school 
officers  to  arouse  an  educational  interest  in  the  commu- 
nity. If  they  indorse  the  teacher  and  his  methods,  the 
people  are  satisfied  that  the  work  is  properly  done. 
School  officers  should  not  only  co-operate  with  the 
teacher,  but  also  secure  the  co-operation  of  the  patrons, 
and  thus  establish  such  entire  harmony  as  cannot  fail  to 
result  in  good  to  all. 


SCHOOL    ETHICS.  169 

IV.  Duties  of  tlie  Siiperiiiteudeut. 

The  chief  duties  to  be  performed  by  the  Snpeiintend- 
ent  or  School  Commissioner  are  specified  by  law,  and 
they  need  not  be  mentioned  here.  Independent  of  these 
are  other  duties  which  the  welfare  of  the  schools  demand 
of  this  officer. 

1.  He  should  Seek  to  Elevate  Teadilng  to  its  Proper 
Rank  as  a  Profession. — This  he  can  do  in  various  ways, 
but  especially  by  granting  certificates  to  competent 
teachers  only.  The  standard  of  qualifications  should 
be  advanced  from  year  to  year,  and  the  day  hastened 
when  all  certificates  shall  be  of  the  first  grade  and 
strictly  professional.  No  other  profession  grades  the 
standing  of  its  members,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  good 
reason  why  teachers  should  be  graded  in  this  manner. 
Ability  and  success  should  in  teaching  determine  the 
professional  standing,  as  they  do  in  other  professions. 

2.  He  should  Harmonize  School  Interests. — The  Super- 
intendent ought  to  see  that  harmony  prevails  between 
the  Directors  and  the  teachers,  and  between  the  teacher 
and  the  patrons.  A  judicious  Superintendent  can  do 
much  toward  promoting  harmony  among  the  various 
.school-workers,  and  thus  add  greatly  to  the  welfare  of 
the  schools.  The  school  work  of  the  county  should  be 
well  systematized,  and  the  teachers  and  the  Directors  be 
made  to  feci  that  all  are  working  for  the  same  purpose 
and  to  tlie  same  end. 

3.  He  should  Create  a  Public  Sentiment  in  Favor  of 
Good  Schools. — This  he  can  do  by  holding  educational 
meetings  in  the  various  school  districts,  at  which  educa- 
tional addresses  may  be  made,  and  in  which  also  the  pu- 


170  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

pils  of  the  various  schools  of  the  district  may  be  bronglit 
together  and  unite  in  exercises  of  interest  to  both  them- 
selves  and  their  parents.  An  energetic  Superintendent 
is  capable  of  doing  great  good  by  arousing  the  patrons 
of  a  district  with  meetings  of  this  kind,  and  making 
them  enthusiiistic  in  the  cause  of  good  schools. 

4.  He  should  Encourage  Good  TeacMng. — The  business 
of  the  Superintendent  is  not  faultfinding.  He  should 
rather  encourage.  Where  it  is  necessary  to  find  fault 
he  should  do  so  kindly,  privately  pointing  out  the  errors 
to  the  teacher,  and  showing  at  the  same  time  how  they 
may  be  corrected.  Where  he  finds  good  work  done  he 
should  give  proj^er  commendation,  and  when  an  opportu- 
nity occurs  to  speak  favorably  of  good  teachers  he  should 
never  hesitate  to  do  so.  Such  a  course  of  conduct  on  the 
part  of  a  Superintendent  will  be  beneficial  not  only  to 
the  weak  teachers  by  assisting  them  to  be  strong,  but 
it  will  also  make  the  strong  stronger. 


CHAPTER   V. 

School  Government. 

Government  is  the  administration  of  laws  for  the 
purpose  of  preserving  order.  School  government  is  the 
administration  of  school  affairs  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
secure  proper  discipline  and  promote  the  greatest  ^yel- 
fare  of  the  school.  It  does  not  differ  matei-ially  from 
family  government.  Its  end  is  the  same,  that  of  making 
good  citizens.  Family  government  is  a  union  properly  of 
divine  and  civil  government.  This  is  true  also  of  school 
government.  The  teacher  takes  the  place  of  the  parent, 
and  assumes  for  the  time  all  the  rights  and  responsibilities 
of  that  person.  School  government  is,  however,  much  the 
more  difficult  of  the  two,  because  it  represents  an  aggre- 
gation of  families,  each  with  its  own  system,  and  in  many 
of  which  government  is  extremely  defective. 

1.  Objects  of  School  Government. 

Among  the  objects  of  school  government  the  following 
are  the  most  important : 

1.  To  Preserve  Order. — Order  is  necessary,  that  school 
work  may  be  performed  to  the  best  advantage,  but  order 
does  not  necessarily  mean  absolute  quiet.  Quiet  may  be 
secured  by  the  enforcement  of  rigid  penalties,  but  it  is  a 
kind  of  quiet  which  is  detrimental  to  the  best  interests 
of  the  school.  The  machinery  of  the  school-room  when 
in  good  working  condition  is  quite  as  likely  to  produce 

171 


172  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

some  noise  as  tlie  niacliinciy  in  well-regiilalcd  inauu- 
faetories;  but-a  degre^e  of  x[uict  and  regularity  sufficient 
to  permit  the  gchool  work  to  go  on  without  interruption 
must  be  observed  at  all  times.  One  of  ^the  chief  objects  of 
school  government  is  to  secure  this  order  and  regularity. 

2.  To  Train  to  Self-Government. — Probably  the  most  im- 
portant object  of  school  government  is  that  of  training 
pupils  to  govern  and  control  themselves.  The  children 
in  our  schools  represent  the  different  varieties  of  family 
government  in  the  community,  and  the  teacher  who  can 
harmonize  all  these,  selecting  the  strong  points  and  dis- 
carding the  weak,  performsa  tiisk  the  magnitude  of  which 
cannot  be  over-estimated. 

y  The  power  to  govern  well,  to  train  pupils  to  self-control, 
(iQ  lift  up  the  weak  and  fill  them  with  self-respect,  to  curb 
the  wayward  and  lead  them  to  the  performance  of  their 
duty,  is  the  essential  characteristic  of  every  successful 
teacher.  Without  this  ability  it  is  unwise  for  any  one 
to  engage  in  the  work  of  teaching. 

Children  are  creatures  of  impulse.  Many  of  them, 
while  not  vicious,  are  heedless  and  thoughtless.  Others 
are  not  only  heedless,  but  also  merciless  and  tyrannical, 
and  they  like  nothing  better  than  a  contest  with  the  new 
teacher.  Let  him  in  this  preliminary  skirmish  win  the 
day,  and  it  is  won  for  all  time,  but  if  he  lose  it  he  need 
hope  for  little  comfort  in  his  efforts  to  manage  that  school 
in  the  future.  ^^ 

With  those  pupils  whose  impulses  are  strong,  and  whose 
moral  powers  are  yet  uncultured  and  untrained,  self-con- 
trol is  necessarily  weak.  Control  of  self  is  the  first  lesson 
they  have  to  learn,  and  it  is  also  in  many  respects  the  most 
important.    Tlie  wise  instruction  of  both  the  teacher  and 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  173 

tlic  parent  is  necessary  to  teaeli  it.  Nor  can  the  lesson  be 
learned  in  a  few  months.  A  school  life  is  too  short  to 
teach  it  thoroughly.  The  teacher  must  not  therefore  be 
discouraged  at  seeming  failure. 

^  2.  Scliool  Control. 

(The  three  chief  officers  to  whom  all  school  control  is 
delegated  are  the  Teacher,  the  Directors  or  Trustees,  and 
the  County  Commissioner  or  Superintendent.  The  local 
Trustees  in  some  States  are  equivalent  to  the  township 
Directors  in  other  States,  and  the  office  of  County  Super- 
intendent in  some  is  similar  in  a  measure  to  that  of  County 
School  Commissioner  in  others. 

Of  these  officers,  the  teacher  comes  in  closest  relations 
to  the  pupils,  though  the  authority  of  all  extend  over  the 
schools,  and  each  office  has  its  separate  duties  and  re- 
sponsibilities; and  it  is  these  duties  and  responsibilities 
Avhich  give  to  us  a  system  of  School  Ethics  in  which  vixji 
included  the  duties  of  teacher,  pupils,  and  school  officers^ 

3.  Elements  of  Governing  Power. 

To  be  a  good  disciplinarian  requires  certain  charac- 
teristics in  the  teacher  which  are  called  for  in  no  other 
vocation  or  profession.  His  field  for  work  is  wider  and 
his  responsibilities  are  greater  than  those  of  any  other 
calling.  He  represents  all  the  families  of  the  commu- 
nity with  all  their  diverse  systems  of  government,  and 
his  discipline  must  be  such  as  not  only  wins  absolute 
success  for  him  in  the  school-room,  but  also  secures  for 
him  the  indorsement  and  approbation  of  his  patrons  and 
school  officers. 
/The  chief  of  these  charaderistlcs  are — - 


174  SCHOOL   MA^■AGE.ME^■T. 

1 .  System. — To  govern  well,  the  teac-lier  must  bo  system- 
atic iu  all  he  does.  He  should  not  only  have  his  pupils 
work  according  to  a  fixed  programme,  but  he  himself 
should  have  his  day's  work  mapped  out  and  provided 
for  before  he  opens  school  in  the  morning.  Every 
movement  of  his  pupils  and  every  recitation  should 
be  conducted  in  a  systematic  manner.  He  should  be 
prompt  iu  all  he  does,  and  thus  be  systematic  as  to  time. 
He  should  see  that  everything  is  in  its  proper  place,  and 
tlius  be  systematic  and  orderly  as  to  place.  Nothing  so 
detracts  from  good  discipline  as  the  carelessness  of  a 
slovenly  teacher. 

Orderly  habits  are  to  be  commended,  not  only  in  the 
teacher,  but  also  iu  the  pupils.  Orderly  habits  estab- 
li.shed  in  the  school-room  become  orderly  habits  for  life. 
The  teacher  should  therefore  encourage  his  pupils  to  be 
neat  and  orderly  in  their  dress,  in  the  care  of  their  books, 
their  desks,  and  the  school  furniture  iu  general. 

2.  Energy. — An  industrious,  energetic  teacher  finds  lit- 
tle difficulty  in  managing  his  pupils  and  keeping  them 
busy,  which,  after  all,  is  one  of  the  secrets  of  good  dis- 
cipline. The  busy  child  is  rarely  troublesome  or  mis- 
chievojis.  It  is  the  idler  that  finds  time  to  annoy  his 
schoolmates  and  the  teachers  with  his  mischief.  Energy 
in  the  teacher  makes  the  pupils  energetic,  and  ovorconus 
obstacles  and  difficulties  which  seem  almost  insurmount- 
able.    Energy  is  work,  and  work  is  genius,     /v 

3.  Vigilance. — The  successful  disciplinarian  is  watchful 
without  being  a  si)y.  Constant  watchfulness  is  necessary 
to  preserve  order  and  to  detect  the  coming  storms.     All 


SCHOOL   GOVERXMENT.  175 

mischief  and  disorder  is  much  more  readily  prevented 
than  corrected.  It  is  best,  therefore,  to  prevent  mischief 
rather  than  M^ait  for  it  to  occur,  and  then  punish  a  child 
for  what  the  teacher  might  and  should  have  prevented. 

The  Teacher  should  not  be  a  Spy. — No  persons  are  more 
unfit  to  govern  than  they  who  show  constant  suspicion 
and  distrust  of  their  pupils.  The  spying  teacher  usu- 
ally finds  all  the  disorder,  confusion  and  trickery  that  he 
is  in  search  of,  but  in  playing  the  spy  he  shows  himself 
unworthy  of  his  office.  The  teacher  can  be  watchful  and 
alive  to  all  that  is  going  on  without  playing  the  part  of 
detective.  He  should  of  course  not  close  his  eyes  to 
wrong-doing,  but  at  the  same  time  he  should  not  mag- 
nify small  offenses  and  imagine  them  aimed  at  the  good 
order  of  the  school. 

The  Vigilant  Teacher  should  Encourage. — His  mission 
is  not  faultfinding.  Many  trivial  offenses  and  faults  are 
overlooked  because  to  call  attention  to  them  would  give 
them  an  air  of  importance  which  they  do  not  deserve. 
It  is  best  to  encourage  and  praise  where  it  is  possible 
to  do  so,  and  find  fault  or  c<^nsure  only  where  the  offense 
is  of  such  a  character  oi  nas  been  so  frequently  repeated 
as  to  interfere  with  the  welfare  of  the  school. 

yf  4.  Self-Control. — The  man  who  hopes  to  teach  his  pupils 
self-control  must  first  be  certain  that  he  is  able  to  control 
himself.  Self-control  gives  the  teacher  that  quiet  dignity 
which  is  a  necessity  in  order  to  secure  and  retain  the  re- 
spect of  the  pupils.  It  gives  him  also  that  self-possession 
which  enables  him  to  decide  on  all  difficulties  with  prompt- 
ness and  certainty.  It  enables  him  to  keep  his  powers 
ready  and  quick  to  respond  at  call. 


176  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

Tin  Teacher  should  Avoid  showing  Anger. — The  teacher 
whose  tenii)er  becomes  his  master  soon  loses  control  of  his 
pnpils.  Though  at  first  his  exhibition  of  auger  may 
frighten  the  children,  the  frequent  repetition  of  these 
fits  of  auirer  makes  him  ridiculous,  and  he  loses  the 
children's  respect  and  love.  Anger  is  justifiable  only 
when  the  pupil  has  attempted  to  interfere  deliberately 
and  maliciously  with  the  welfare  of  the  school  by  com- 
mitting some  serious  oifense. 

The  Teacher  should  be  Patient. — Many  things  will  occur 
to  vex  and  irritate  him,  and  particularly  is  this  likely  to 
be  true  when  his  nerves  are  unstrung  by  ill  health  or 
overwoi'k.  But  it  is  his  duty  to  be  patient  even  under 
these  trying  circumstances.  Children  learn  slowly;  they 
are  forgetful,  and  they  thoughtlessly  commit  offenses 
against  which  they  have  been  warned  again  and  again. 
Through  all  these  trials  the  teacher  must  be  patient,  and 
thus  will  he  win  the  respect  and  love  of  even  the  most 
thoughtless  and  wayward. 

The  Teaclicr  should  be  Cheerful. — Tlie  cheerful  teacher 
succeeds  best  in  his  discipline.  The  man  who  can  thwart 
mischief  by  turning  the  joke  on  the  perpetrator  rarely 
fails  in  discipline.  The  cheerful  teacher  is  a  power  in 
the  school-room,  and  his  influence  is  tenfold  more  potent 
in  securing  proper  discipline  than  all  the  rules  and  regu- 
lations that  can  be  enacted.  He  scatters  joy  and  sunshine 
where  his  grumbling  neighbor  distributes  grief  and  shad- 
ows; and  his  pupils  leave  him  at  the  end  of  their  school 
career  showering  blessings  on  him  and  feeling  grateful 
for  the  work  he  has  accomplished  in  making  them  worthy 
men  and  women. 

The  Teacher  should  Avoid  Controversy  iviih  his  Pupils. 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  177 

— Antagonism  between  teacher  and  pupils  lowers  each  in 
the  estimation  of  the  other.  Under  no  circumstances 
should  the  teacher  so  far  forget  himself  as  to  quarrel 
or  argue  with  a  pupil  in  ill-humor.  Nor  should  the 
teacher  under  any  circumstances  permit  pupils  to  reply- 
to  him  in  an  insolent  or  impertinent  manner.  Dis- 
cipline must  be  preserved  at  all  hazards — by  pleasant, 
cheerful  comnmnication  with  pupils  if  this  be  possible, 
but  if  not  by  this  means,  then  by  letting  the  pupil  un- 
derstand that  obedience  to  law  is  the  first  requisite. 

5.  Confidence. — The  teacher  who  hopes  to  succeed  must 
have  confidence — 

In  his  TFo;'^.— The  man  who  does  not  believe  in  the 
nobleness  of  the  teacher's  work  has  no  business  in  the 
school- room.  Those  who  regard  teaching  as  a  mere 
stepping-stone  by  which  to  rise  to  other  positions,  and 
to  be  occupied  only  until  some  calling  more  remunera- 
tive claims  their  attention,  are  not  teachers  in  the  proper 
sense  of  the  term,  nor  do  they  ever  succeed  as  does  he  who 
devotes  his  whole  energy  to  the  work,  and  who  has  full 
faith  that  he  is  engaged  in  a  calling  inferior  in  no  respect 
to  any  other  which  engages  the  attention  and  talents  of 
his  fellow-men. 
^  In  his  Pupils. — In  no  way  can  the  teacher  secure 
better  discipline  and  more  earnest  hard  work  than  by 
showing  his  pupils  that  he  has  entire  confidence  in  them 
and  their  intention  to  do  right.  At  no  time  should  he 
permit  them  to  believe  that  he  thinks  them  unworthy 
of  his  confidence.  It  is  the  first  step  toward  their  ruin. 
Let  him  trust  his  pupils,  and  they  will  show  themselves 
worthy  of  being  trusted.    Even  the  hardened  criminal 

12 


r 


178  SCIIOOI.   MANAGEMENT. 

is  elevated  by  showing  him  that  you  have  faith  in  hia 
hcnesty. 

In  Himself. — The  teacher  mast  have  confidence  not 
only  in  his  work,  but  also  in  himself.  He  must  feel  that 
he  is  competent  to  })erform  the  work  which  is  placed  be- 
fore him.  He  need  not  and  should  not  be  egotistic,  for 
this  will  greatly  interfere  with  his  success,  but  he  should 
know  how  to  esteem  and  measure  his  own  ability.  His 
scholarship'  should  be  such  that  he  feels  entire  confidence 
in  his  ability  to  teach  all  that  may  be  required  of  him. 
His  knowledge  of  management  and  methods  must  be  such 
as  to  make  him  feel  that  he  is  entirely  competent  to  per- 
form the  work  of  governing  and  teaching  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  both  the  school  and  the  community.  He  should 
have  a  due  estimate  of  himself,  and  yet  with  it  all  he 
must  be  modest  and  not  inclined  to  dogmatism.   Y^ 

6.  Culture. — Culture  of  mind,  manners,  and  voice  are 
great  aids  in  discipline. 

Culture  of  Mind. — This  includes  not  onljjRcholar- 
ship,  but  also  the  ability  to  grapple  firmly  with  difficulties 
in  study,  and  dispose  of  them  promptly  as  they  arise  in 
the  daily  school  work.  A  well -disciplined  mind,  though 
not  equal,  possibly,  in  scholarship  to  another  undisciplined 
and  improperly  cultured,  will  much  more  readily  adapt 
means  to  ends,  and  much  more  readily  apply  principles 
in  such  a  way  as  to  win  at  once  the  esteem  and  confidence 
of  pupils. 

Culture  of  Manners. — Pupils  imitate  their  teachers. 
A  polished  lady  or  gentleman  in  the  teacher's  chair  will 
in  time  produce  ladylike  and  gentlemanly  pupils.  The 
boorish  teacher,  with  unpolished  boots  and  soiled  clothes, 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT.  179 

will  also  have  his  imitators  and  followers.  It  is  of  the 
greatest  possilJe  importance  that  the  teacher  be  a  model 
ia  his  deportment  and  personal  habits.  Let  him  sit  in 
an  awkward  position,  his  pupils  will  imitate;  let  him  be 
addicted  to  offensive  personal  habits,  his  pupils  will  quote 
him  as  an  example ;  let  him,  on  the  other  hand,  be  pol- 
ished and  polite,  lifting  his  hat  to  his  pupils  as  he  meets 
them,  the  manners  of  the  whole  community  will  change 
and  he  'will  find  himself  an  object  of  respect. 

Culture  of  Voice. — Culture  of  voice  is  also  an  im- 
portant factor  in  discipline.  The  teacher  should  cultivate 
pleasant  tones  of  voice.  In  no  case  should  he  speak 
hiu"shly,  or  louder  than  is  necessary  for  his  pupils  to 
hear  bim  distinctly.  The  teacher  often  makes  his  school 
noisy  by  being  himself  noisy  in  manner  and  voice.  He 
should  not  talk  too  much.  Discipline  is  gained  often  quite 
as  effectually  by  allowing  the  pupils  to  talk  in  recitation 
while  the  teacher  listens.  The  scolding  and  faultfinding 
tone  of  voice  is  too  prevalent  in  our  school-rooms,  even 
at  the  present  day,  to  be  productive  of  good  order. 

7.  Love. — Love  is  a  ruling  principle  of  discipline.  The 
ability  to  make  our  pupils  not  only  respect  us  for  our  per- 
sonal worth,  but  at  the  same  time  love  us  because  of  our 
interest  in  their  welfare  and  our  kindness  toward  them, 
is  one  that  every  teacher  should  possess.  To  command 
this  love  and  respect  argues  certain  qualities  in  the  teacher 
Avhich  aid  him  greatly  in  discipline. 

He  should  Love  his  Pupils. — The  teacher  who  loves 
his  pupils  manifests  that  lov£  in  his  desire  to  benefit 
them.  He  is  kind  and  considerate.  Feeling  that  he 
is  interested  in  their  welfare,  the  pupils  learn  to  love 


180  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

the  teacher,  and  the  work  of  discipline  is  very  greaily 

lessened. 

He  should  Try  to  3Iakc  his  Pupils  Happy.— The  foith- 
fiil  teacher  adds  daily  to  the  happiness  of  those  in  his 
care.  Sometimes  he  does  it  by  offering  a  word  of  en- 
couragement, sometimes  by  sympathizing  with  them, 
sometimes  by  soothing,  sometimes  by  adding  to  their 
personal  comfort,  but  through  it  all  showing  the  loving 
heart  which  dictates  all  this  kindness. 

Obedience  is  Won  by  Love. — The  pupils  placed  under  a 
loving  teacher,  whose  guidance  they  soon  learn  to  estimate 
at  its  highest  worth,  obey  cheerfully  because  love  dictates 
cheerful  obedience.  The  teacher  is  found  to  be  a  loving 
friend  rather  than  an  arrogant  despot,  and  obedience 
becomes  a  pleasure.  Indeed,  it  is  not  in  the  nature  of 
things  to  do  otherwise  than  respect  and  obey  those  whom 
we  love. 

8.  Personal  Magnetism. — There  are  men  and  women 
who  seem  to  have  been  born  to  influence  and  control 
their  fellows.  What  the  latent  element  in  their  cha- 
racter is  which  gives  them  this  control  and  influence  it 
is  difficult  to  say.  For  want  of  a  better  name,  it  is  usu- 
ally denominated  personal  magnetism.  It  is  the  power 
which  brings  to  a  man  friends  and  surrounds  him  with 
associates,  though  he  may  have  neither  wealth  nor  posi- 
tion to  bestow.  It  is  the  power  which  enables  many  a 
man  to  say  commonplace  things  in  a  commonplace  way, 
and  yet  often  please  an  audience  far  better  than  could 
the  profoundest  Avisdom  of  the  most  revered  sages  and 
philosophers. 

The  teacher  who  is  possessed  of  this  magnetic  character 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  ISl 

need  have  little  fear  of  failure  in  discipline.  His  school 
will  in  a  great  measure  control  and  regulate  itself.  Pupils 
will  do  right  and  strive  to  please  him  because  they  find  a 
pleasure  in  doing  so.  Patrons  will  sustain  him  because 
they  find  their  children  pleased  and  ready  to  defend  the 
teacher.  It  is  this  same  power  that  gave  unlimited  suc- 
cess to  Pestalozzi,  Arnold,  Page,  and  others  who  have 
proved  themselves  the  great  teachers  of  the  world. 

9.  Executive  Power.— Closely  allied  to  personal  gov- 
erning power  is  that  talent  which  many  possess  of  wisely 
adapting  means  to  ends,  and  thus  winning  for  themselves 
the  power  to  govern.  Many  elements  enter  into  this 
power.  The  basis  of  all,  however,  is  good  judgment, 
or  what  is  usually  known  as  good  common  sense. 

There  are  those  in  every  community  toward  whom 
people  turn  for  advice.  They  are  men  whose  judgment 
in  a  measure  regulates  the  thought  and  action  of  that 
community.  These  persons  are  born  managers,  and  they 
succeed  in  every  calling  in  life  in  which  sound  judgment 
is  one  of  the  requisites.  We  all  feel  that  Ave  can  rely  on 
the  counsel  of  a  man  whose  judgment  is  cool  and  delib- 
erate and  whose  action  is  well  considered.  Such  men  are 
natural  leaders,  and  in  the  history  of  the  world  they  have 
always  asserted  their  power. 

Judgment  may  be  Trained. — Common  sense  may  be  in- 
born, but  there  is  no  question  that  that  faculty  of  mind 
which  we  know  as  "judgment "  may  be  cultured,  and  thus 
acquire  greater  executive  power.  This  culture  needs  cool- 
ness and  deliberation  on  our  part.  It  needs  the  subduing 
of  temper  and  personal  choice  to  some  extent.  It  needs 
at  times  the  subordination  of  our  own  will  to  that  of 


182  SCHOOL.    MANAGEMENT. 

others.  It  needs  at  times  a  temporary  defeat,  tliat  we 
may  gain  a  final  victory.  It  needs  that  we  sometiiiies 
seem  to  follow,  while  in  reality  we  guide  and  direct. 

WiseScIiool  Government seelcs  Co-operation— The  teacher 
who  undertakes  to  conduct  his  school  independent  of  the 
wishes  and  opinions  of  the  community  meets  not  only  with 
opposition,  but  often  with  utter  fLiilure.  The  wise  teacher 
seeks  the  co-operation  not  only  of  his  patrons,  but  also  of 
his  Directors  or  Trustees.  He  does  not  say  decidedly,  "  I 
shall  do  this,"  or,  "  I  shall  do  that,"  but  rather,  "  Had 
I  not  better  do  this  ?"  or,  "  Had  I  not  better  do  that  ?" 
He  leads  by  seeming  to  follow.  He  meets  the  objector 
on  the  threshold,  takes  him  by  the  hand,  welcomes  him 
cordially  to  the  school-room,  interests  him  in  the  exercises, 
consults  him  on  a  point  or  two  about  the  whole  school, 
and  particularly  about  his  own  child,  explains  to  him 
the  school  plans,  parts  with  him  at  the  close  of  the 
school  day  as  a  warm  friend,  and  sends  him  out  into 
the  community  on  a  mission  to  convert  others.  This  is 
tact,  executive  talent,  good  judgment,  wise  management. 

10.  Will-Power. — Strength  of  will  in  the  teacher  is 
essential  to  good  government.  The  child  must  be  made 
to  feel  that  law  is  necessary,  and  that  the  teacher  is  the 
ruling  power  in  the  school-room.  He  must  be  made  to 
feel  also  that  his  own  will  must  be  curbed,  and  where  the 
interest  of  the  school  demands  it  be  made  to  harmonize 
with  that  of  others.  The  teacher's  will  must  of  course 
be  supreme.  He  is  the  ruler,  and  if  he  be  possessed  of 
the  proper  executive  power  and  tact  he  will  have  little 
difficulty  in  guiding  and  directing  his  pupils. 

Tlie  TeacJicr^s  Will  must  be  Firm. — A  vacillating  policy 


SCHOOL    GOVERNiMENT.  183 

is  always  weak.  The  teacher  who  at  first  refuses,  then 
relents,  and  at  last  consents,  shows  a  weakness  of  will- 
power which  is  not  conducive  to  good  government.  But 
the  teacher  who  finds  himself  in  error  should  never  be  so 
cowardly  a.s  to  fear  making  acknowledgment  of  his  mis- 
take. It  is  a  grave  error  to  think  that  we  ought  never  to 
reverse  our  judgment.  Indeed,  it  is  a  plain  duty  to  cor- 
rect ourselves  when  in  error,  that  our  pupils  may  not  fall 
into  the  same  mistakes. 

Firmness  and  Kindness  must  be  United. — The  teacher 
who  depends  wholly  on  his  will-power  and  his  firmness 
is  not  well  prepared  to  draw  his  pupils  to  him  and  con- 
trol them  by  appeals  to  their  better  nature.  He  may  rule 
with  a  rod  of  iron,  and  thus  secure  order  and  quiet,  but 
it  is  a  sort  of  rule  which  awakens  no  kindly  sympathy 
between  teacher  and  pupils,  and  which  in  the  end  must 
be  productive  oi"  discord  and  friction  the  moment  the 
iron  grasp  is  relaxed.  Let  kindness  be  associated  with 
firmness ;  let  pupils  feel  that  the  teacher  is  their  friend, 
and  that  whatever  seeming  arbitrary  power  he  may  exer- 
cise is  exerted  for  their  welfare  as  individuals  and  for  the 
welfare  of  the  school,  and  obedience  will  be  recognized 
as  a  duty.  Pupils  will  obey  such  discipline  cheerfully 
where  they  chafe  and  fret  under  the  iron  rule  of  will- 
power alone,  or  become  reckless,  uninterested,  and  list- 
less under  the  government  of  one  whose  will-power  is 
weak. 

11.  The  Teacher  mils':  have  Power  to  Punish. — Human 
nature  has  not  yet  reached  that  approximate  perfection 
which  will  permit  us  to  govern  without  punishment. 
There    are   stubborn    natures    which    at   times    can    be 


184  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

reached  in  no  other  way.  It  is  idling  time  to  argue 
that  all  can  be  governed  by  moral  suasion  and  by  appeals 
to  be  good.  A  teacher  who  possesses  all  the  elements  of 
discipline  here  named  will  succeed  in  nearly  every  case 
without  resort  to  punishment,  and  yet  so  long  as  human 
nature  is  imperfect  we  shall  find  some  children  in  our 
schools  who  must  be  governed  by  a  firm  hand,  and  who 
can  be  reached  at  times  only  by  inflicting  punishment. 

It  is  a  mistake  for  school  officers  to  deprive  the  teacher 
of  the  power  to  punish.  The  teacher's  influence  is  thus 
weakened,  and  the  insolence  of  evil-minded  children  is 
capable  not  only  of  making  his  position  unpleasant,  but 
also  of  rendering  him  incapable  of  accomplishing  good. 
It  is  wiser  to  give  the  teacher  the  power  to  punish,  and  hold 
him  responsible  for  the  abuse  of  that  power  in  punishing 
too  frequently  or  too  severely. 

12.  TeacMng-Power. — One  of  the  most  important  ele- 
ments of  good  discipline  is  teaching-power.  The  ability 
to  arouse  one's  pupils,  to  interest  them,  and  set  them 
to  thinking  for  themselves,  is  a  rare  gift.  Hearing 
recitations  is  not  teaching.  Keeping  good  order  in 
school  is  not  teaching.  Teaching-power  consists  in  the 
ability  to  make  your  pupils  feel  the  importance  of  the 
work  in  which  they  are  engaged,  arouse  their  enthusiasm, 
and  create  a  love  for  learning.  Its  results  are  scholarship 
and  culture,  not  the  ability  only  to  state  facts  as  recorded 
in  books  without  comprehending  them. 

Teaching-Power  Creates  Interest. — The  power  to  teach 
well  means  also  the  power  to  govern  well.  All  things 
else  being  equal,  the  teacher  who  can  interest  his  pupils 
rarely  finds  them  inclined  to  do  mischief  or  create  dis- 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  185 

order.  The  interesting  teacher  directs  the  energies  of 
his  pupils  into  proper  channels,  and  thus  secures  work 
instead  of  mischief.  The  pupils,  who  catch  the  enthu- 
siasm of  their  teacher  and  follow  his  lead,  rarely  find 
time  for  mischief,  and  when  engaged  in  work  the  school 
becomes  largely  self-governing  and  self-regulating.  It  is 
a  doubtful  policy,  however,  to  permit  one's  self  to  become 
so  enthusiastic  as  to  forget  that  quiet  and  order  are  essen- 
tial to  study.  The  teacher  who  permits  his  enthusiasm  or 
that  of  his  pupils  to  become  so  boisterous  as  to  interfere 
with  the  study  of  those  not  engaged  in  recitation  does 
quite  as  much  harm  as  he  who  fails  to  govern  because 
of  other  incompetence. 

13.  Impartiality. — The  teacher  acts  not  only  as  a  legis- 
lator, framing  the  laws  for  his  school,  but  also  as  a  judge. 
In  this  capacity  he  must  be  strictly  impartial,  dealing  fairly 
and  justly  with  every  pupil.  He  will  of  course  love  some 
better  than  others,  for  the  simple  reason  that  some  are 
more  lovable  and  more  worthy  of  love  than  others; 
but  this  must  not  interfere  with  his  government.  So 
far  as  his  school  laAvs  and  discipline  are  concerned,  he 
must  have  no  favorites.  All  should  enjoy  the  same 
privileges  and  receive  the  same  impartial  treatment. 
Every  decision  he  renders  should  be  weighed  in  the 
scales  of  exact  justice  to  all.  Judgments  thus  rendered 
will  serve  to  win  for  him  the  love  and  respect  of  his 
pupils,  and  good  discipline  will  be  secured. 

4.  Causes  of  Disorder. 

Independent  of  the  restless  activity  of  child-nature, 
which  often  leads  to  disorder  in  school,  th  ire  are  causes 


1S6  SCHOOL    MANAGEMi:>.T. 

■which  produce  disturbance  and  discord  for  which  the  pu- 
pils are  not  directly  responsible,  and  for  which  it  would 
be  manifestly  improper  to  punish  them.  The  wise  plan 
is  to  remove  these  causes  of  disorder,  and  with  them  the 
temptation  to  do  wrong.  The  following  are  among  the 
chief: 

1.  Improper  Ventilation. — There  are  few  teachers  who 
have  not  learned  the  value  of  pure  air  in  maintaining 
good  discipline  as  well  as  in  securing  effective  study. 
Students  compelled  to  breathe  impure  air  become  rest- 
less, and  find  it  difficult  to  confine  themselves  to  work 
except  under  forced  pressure.  The  teacher  also  finds 
himself  inclined  to  become  irritable,  and  he  gives  atten- 
tion to  trifling  interruptions  and  seeming  offenses  which 
at  other  times  would  not  claim  a  thought.  The  school 
is  a  good  barometer,  showing  the  approaching  storm  by 
the  restless  condition  of  both  pupils  and  teacher. 

2.  Uncomfortable  School-Houses.— School-houses  improp- 
erly heated,  as  well  as  those  improperly  ventilated,  are 
conducive  to  disorder.  Pupils  who  are  suffering  with 
extreme  heat  or  extreme  cold  find  it  a  matter  of  great 
difficulty  to  forget  tlieir  bodily  discomfort  and  fix  their 
attention  closely  on  their  study.  Students  under  such 
circumstances  must  become  restless  and  disorderly.  It 
is  a  natural  result  of  their  bodily  suffering.  The  evil  is 
beyond  the  reach  of  both  pupils  and  teacher,  and  it  can 
be  remedied  only  by  the  Board  of  Directors  or  Trustees. 

3.  Uncomfortable  Seatings.— These  have  also  much  to 
do  with  disorder  in  the  school-room.  Hard  benches, 
with  straight  backs  ill  adapted  to  the  natural  curvature 
of  the  body,  and  so  high  that  a  child's  feet  cannot  rest 
comfortably  on  the  floor,  tend  to  tire  the  pupils  and  make 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  187 

them  shift  position  frequently  in  order  to  be  comfortable. 
High  desks  have  the  same  eifect,  and  tliis  desire  to  be 
comfortable,  and  the  consequent  frequent  changing  of 
position  in  a  school  of  fifty  or  more  pupils,  must  neces- 
sarily j)roduce  noise  and  consequent  disorder. 

4.  ni-Healtli  of  Pupils.— The  ill-health  of  pupils  is  a 
frequent  cause  of  restlessness.  Defective  ventilation  and 
excessive  worry  are  both  liable  to  cause  headache,  and  this 
in  turn  unfits  the  pupil  either  for  effective  study  or  for 
preserving  good  order.  Schools  are  frequently  annoyed 
also  by  the  almost  incessant  coughing  of  such  pupils  as  care- 
lessly expose  themselves  to  drafts  of  air,  or  who  overheat 
themselves  and  cool  too  suddenly,  thus  contracting  colds. 

5.  Nervousness. — Nervousness  of  both  pupils  and 
teacher,  or  of  either,  is  apt  to  produce  more  or  less 
disorder  in  the  school-room.  The  nervous  teacher  is 
apt  to  become  unnecessarily  agitated,  and  thus  cause 
nervousness  and  excitement  among  the  pupils.  But 
nervous  pupils  are  apt  to  become  restless  under  the 
most  even-tempered  teacher. 

6.  Contagious  LaugMer. — Nothing  is  so  vexatious  as 
the  disposition  which  pupils  occasionally  manifest  to 
giggle  and  laugh  without  any  apparent  cause.  This 
laughter,  too,  becomes  contagious,  and  the  trouble  thus 
begun  is  likely  to  continuQ  indefinitely.  Scolding  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  either  makes  it  worse  or  changes  the 
laughter  to  anger.  It  would  be  entirely  proper  to  dis- 
miss a  pupil  from  class  if  he  persist  in  amusing  himself 
and  disturbing  others  in  this  manner.  Some  teachers  cure 
this  disposition  to  laugh  foolishly  by  setting  apart  a  few 
minutes  when  the  laugh  is  most  likely  to  come,  and  devote 
it  to  a  laughing  exercise  in  which  only  the  laughers  shall 


188  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

participate.  It  is  a  severe  cure,  but  it  is  usually  an  effect- 
ive one. 

7.  Whispering. — This  is  one  of  the  puzzling  questions 
of  school-management.  Pupils  will  whisper,  just  as  grown 
folks  will  talk,  when  they  find  companions  with  whom 
they  may  carry  on  a  conversation.  Whispering  is  a  cause 
of  disorder,  and  it  is  sometimes  annoying  to  both  studi- 
ous pupils  and  the  teacher.  What  shall  we  do  about  it? 
Shall  we  enact  strict  rules  that  there  shall  be  no  whisper- 
ing on  penalty  of  punishment  ?  Few  teachers  have  found 
such  rules  effective,  and  fewer  still  have  found  them  less 
annoying  to  the  teacher  than  to  the  pupil.  An  inflexible 
rule  which  visits  punishment  upon  every  offending  one 
that  whispers  makes  no  distinction  between  the  vicious 
and  the  thoughtless,  and  is  therefore  unjust. 

Whispering  is  best  subdued  by  requests.  IiL,igid  rules 
only  make  the  children  deceitful,  and  train  them  to  sub- 
stitute deaf-mute  alphabet  signs  or  note- writing  for  whis- 
pering, either  of  which  takes  more  time  and  is  more  an- 
noying than  the  whispering  itself.  Pupils  should  not  be 
left  to  understand  that  they  dare  whisper  whenever  they 
please,  but  instead  that  whispering  is  discountenanced, 
that  it  interferes  with  study,  that  it  annoys  the  teacher 
and  the  pupils,  that  it  wastes  valuable  time,  etc.  If  pu- 
pils are  at  first  unable  to  control  their  desire  to  whisper, 
the  teacher  might  with  profit  give  a  whispering  recess  of 
a  minute  or  so  every  hour,  which  would  serve  as  an  escape- 
valve.  Pupils  will  appreciate  the  kindness,  and  then 
devote  their  time  during  the  study-period  entirely  to 
study.  An  over-rigid  adherence  to  rule  quite  as  often 
causes  mischief  as  does  the  whispering  itself.  Pupils 
have  a  natural  desire  to  talk  and  ask  questions.     It  is 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  189 

best  to  control  and  regulate  that  desire,  rutlier  than  curb 
it.  The  teacher  is  not  wiser  tlian  Natnre,  and  he  mnst 
not  take  it  for  granted  tlmt  Nature  is  all  wrong  and  that 
she  must  be  corrected. 

Few  teachers  ever  succeed  fully  in  breaking  up  the 
habit  of  whispering.  There  is  more  important  school 
work  demanding  the  attention  of  teachers  than  the  con- 
stant watchfuhiess  for  culprits.  liCt  the  teacher  wisely 
guide  and  direct  the  efforts  of  Nature,  and  success  is 
always  within  reach  ;  and  this  is  the  proper  remedy  for 
whispering,  as  well  as  for  all  other  school  faults. 

8.  A  Disorderly  Teacher. — The  teacher's  personal  con- 
duct has  much  to  do  with  the  good  order  of  his  school. 
Pupils  are  imitative.  A  bright,  cheerful  teacher  has 
bright,  cheerful  pupils,  while  one  who  is  fretful  will 
annoy  his  pupils  and  worry  them  into  fretfulness.  A 
noisy,  disoixlerly  teacher  always  has  a  noisy  and  disorderly 
school.  The  maxim  is  old,  but  always  true :  "As  is  the 
teacher,  so  is  the  school."  The  teacher  therefore  must  be 
orderly,  that  he  may  secure  order.  His  manner  of  address 
to  the  pupils  must  be  pleasant  and  conversational ;  his 
manner  of  walking  across  the  floor  must  be  such  as  not 
to  attract  attention.  If  he  speak  in  loud  tones,  his  pupils 
will  speak  in  loud  tones,  and  if  his  movements  about  the 
room  be  noisy,  he  will  find  ready  imitators  among  the 
ciiildren. 

9.  A  Timid  Teacher. — Pupils  soon  learn  to  appreciate 
force  of  character,  and  they  never  fail  to  lose  their  re- 
spect for  a  teacher  who  is  so  timid  as  to  fear  his  pupils. 
Let  the  pupils  once  discover  that  the  teacher  is  afraid  to 
maintain  his  authority,  and  that  authority  is  gone.  We 
often  respect  men  because  they  respect  themselves,  but 


190  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

the  over- meek  man,  whose  timiflity  frighfens  liim  into 
absolute  Ininiilit}',  wins  the  respect  of  neither  men  nor 
children. 

10.  A  Suspicious  Teacher. — Possibly  no  teacher  provokes 
]>upils  to  commit  deeds  of  disorder  more  than  one  who  is 
constantly  on  the  watch  for  mischief.  Students  like  to 
measure  their  ability  to  play  tricks  and  escape  the  de- 
tection of  a  teacher  who  is  on  the  constant  lookout  for 
evil.  A  suspicious  teacher  always  finds  himself  in  trou- 
ble, for  the  simple  reason  that  no  one  feels  like  commit- 
ting mischief  half  so  much  at  any  time  as  when  he  knows 
that  he  is  suspected  of  wrong-doing.  To  win  a  victory 
over  a  teacher  who  prides  himself  on  keeping  good  order 
because  he  is  constantly  on  the  scent  for  wickedness  is  a 
glory  which  does  good  to  the  lieart  of  any  boy.  The 
teacher  should  look  for  good,  and  show  that  he  expects 
it,  and  he  will  rarely  find  himself  disappointed, 

11.  Threats. — Teachers  should  never  threaten,  but  if 
threats  are  made  teachers  ought  to  see  them  executed. 
Threats  as  to  what  we  must  do  and  what  we  must  not 
do  always  tend  to  irritate  us.  They  have  much  the  same 
eifect  on  children.  Many  a  threat  is  regarded  by  the  child 
as  simply  a  challenge,  and  often  children  are  tempted  to 
wrong-doing  by  the  mere  threat  which  has  suggested  the 
evil. 

12.  Unwi^Regulations. — Great  care  should  be  exercised 
in  the  adoption  of  regulations,  that  none  be  included  which 
are  likely  to  cause  pupils  to  chafe  and  fret  under  their  re- 
strictions. All  regulations  that  are  likely  to  insinuate 
that  pupils  cannot  be  trusted,  or  that  interfere  with 
their  personal  freedom  where  such  interference  is  not 
necessary  for  the  welfire  of  the  school,  should  be  ex- 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  191 

eluded.  These  are  not  only  unnecessary,  but  also  unwise, 
because  they  seem  unreasonable  to  the  child, and  cause  him 
to  chafe  under  their  requirements  and  question  their  util- 
ity and  justice.  Many  a  rebellion  against  authority  might 
be  obviated  by  discarding  all  such  regulations  as  are  not 
needed  for  the  wise  government  of  the  school. 

5.  Means  of  AToiding  Disorder. 

Disorder  may  to  a  great  extent  be  avoided  by  wisely 
removing  the  causes  which  lead  to  it,  but  the  teacher  does 
not  always  have  the  necessary  power  to  do  this.  He  can 
do  little  in  the  matter  of  improving  either  the  school- 
house  or  the  seatings,  and  he  finds  his  power  limited 
also  in  other  directions.  He  may,  however,  by  earnest 
effort  do  ranch  to  turn  the  minds  of  his  pupils  from 
wrong-doing  and  disorder  and  arouse  in  them  a  spirit 
favorable  to  good  discipline.  Among  the  important 
means  of  preventing  disorder  are  the  following: 

1.  The  School  should  be  Made  Pleasant  and  Attractive. 
— This  is  one  of  the  first  duties  of  the  teacher.  Efforts 
to  make  the  school  attractive  will  prove  effective  not  only 
in  drawing  pupils  to  the  school,  but  also  in  breaking  up 
irregular  attendance  and  truancy,  and  in  preserving  good 
order  while  pupils  are  in  school.  It  is  rarely  the  case 
that  pupils  become  truants  unless  they  find  the  fields 
and  the  streets  more  inviting  than  the  school-room. 
Pleasant  employment  should  be  given  to  every  child 
while  at  school,  and  the  teacher's  manner  and  instruc- 
tion should  both  be  so  interesting  as  to  attract  and  hold 
the  attention  of  the  children. 

2.  The  School-room  should  be  Ornamented.— This  is  one 
of  the  readiest  and  most  effective  nicans  of  makin^j  the 


192  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

scliool  pleasant.  Engravings,  tasteful  pictures,  charts, 
and  other  ornaments  should  be  hung  on  the  walls. 
AVhcrever  it  is  possible  pots  of  growing  plants  should 
be  placed  at  the  windows,  and  where  this  is  not  possible 
groups  of  autumn  leaves,  dried  ornamental  grasses,  or 
dried  ferns,  tastefully  arranged,  should  be  made  to  add 
to  the  beauty  of  the  room.  The  cabinets  of  leaves, 
grasses,  minerals,  grains,  etc.  heretofore  mentioned  may 
be  made  to  serve  the  same  purpose.  Sets  of  ornamental 
mottoes  may  be  made  to  do  double  duty  in  beautifying 
the  room  and  at  the  same  time  instilling  v^aluable  moral 
sentiments. 

3.  Pupils  should  be  Encouraged. — No  one  can  estimate 
the  full  effect  of  kindness  and  encouragement.  The 
teacher,  above  all  others,  should  be  cautious  to  encour- 
age at  all  times.  The  weak  are  thus  strengthened,  and 
the  strong  made  stronger.  Many  a  failure  to  do  good 
w^ork  is  the  result  of  faultfinding  where  kindness  was 
needed.  Discouraged  pupils  find  a  short  route  to  dis- 
order. The  teacher  who  speaks  kind  and  encouraging 
words  to  his  pupils  rarely  finds  government  a  difficult 
task. 

4.  The  Teacher  should  Cultivate  a  Pleasant  and  Cheerful 
Disposition. — It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  be  cheerful  in  order 
that  the  influence  over  his  pupils  may  be  right.  The  sour, 
sullen,  morose  dyspeptic  is  out  of  place  in  the  school-room. 
It  is  the  teacher's  privilege,  as  well  as  his  duty,  to  mingle 
with  his  pupils  and  associate  with  them.  His  disposition 
should  be  such,  then,  as  will  not  tend  to  lead  his  pupils 
to  look  on  the  dark  side  of  life,  but  such  rather  as  will 
brighten  their  lives  and  cheer  them  on  in  their  work. 
The  cheerful,  energetic  teacher  with  a  kind  word  for 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT.  193 

every  one  is  a  force  whose  power  cannot  well  be  over- 
estimated. 

6.  Eternal  Vigilance  should  be  Preserved. — Teachers 
must  be  wide  awake,  not  only  to  detect  culprits  after 
offenses  have  been  committed,  but  also  to  prevent  of- 
fenses by  anticipating  mischief.  The  teacher,  as  has 
before  been  said,  should  not  be  a  spy,  but  he  should 
be  alive  to  all  that  is  going  on  in  the  school-room,  and 
the  mere  fact  that  he  is  wide  awake  and  watchful  to  de- 
tect mischief  before  it  results  in  an  offense  will  have  a 
powerful  influence  in  preventing  any  violation  of  the 
school  regulations. 

6.  Pupils  should  be  Kept  Busy. — Idlers  are  the  ones 
who  find  most  opportunities  to  be  disorderly.  Busy 
children  rarely  have  time  to  devote  to  mischief.  The 
secret  of  success  in  managing  small  children,  as  well 
as  larger  ones,  lies  in  giving  them  plenty  to  do.  The 
criminals  who  till  our  jails  as  convicts  are  not  the  busy, 
industrious  mechanics  and  laboring-men  of  a  community, 
however  poor  these  may  be,  but  they  are  the  loungers  and 
idlers  who  have  ample  time  to  plan  and  mature  their  mis- 
chievous plots  and  carry  them  into  execution. 

7.  The  Public  Opinion  of  the  School  must  be  Made  Un- 
favorable to  Disorder. — Public  opinion  is  always  powerful 
in  controlling  the  action  of  individuals,  even  where  con- 
science does  not  make  known  its  disapproval.  Every 
child  has  more  or  less  regard  for  the  public  sentiment 
of  the  school.  This  public  sentiment  should  therefore 
be  trained  to  indorse  the  right  and  condemn  the  wrong. 
If  such  a  sentiment  can  be  aroused  among  the  pupils  of 
a  school,  it  will  act  as  a  powerful  preventive  of  disorder. 

8.  The  Teacher  should  Show  his  Pupils  that  he  has  Con 

13 


19  4  SCHOOI.    MANAGEMKXT. 

fidenceintliem.' — Confidence  begets  confidence.  We  have 
liiith  in  those  wlio  have  fiiith  in  us.  The  teacher  should 
never  for  a  moment  show  that  he  suspects  his  pupils  of 
any  inclination  to  do  wrong.  He  will  rarely  find  his  con- 
fidence misplaced ;  and  even  should  such  be  the  case,  it 
will  be  time  then  to  let  the  children  know  that  he  has 
lost  faith  in  them.  It  is  a  rare  thing  indeed  that  a  child 
betrays  the  trust  confided  to  him.  Indeed,  it  is  sometimes 
wise  to  entrust  children  with  the  care  of  proi)erty  or  assign 
them  special  work  to  do,  simply  to  make  them  feel  that 
you  have  faith  in  them.  It  will  give  them  a  higher 
opinion  of  themselves. 

9.  Tlie  Teacher  should  be  Courteous  and  Polite. — Polite- 
ness in  the  teacher  will  find  its  counterpart  in  the  pupil. 
The  teacher  who  meets  his  pupils  on  the  street  as  well  as 
in  the  school-room  with  a  pleasant  smile  or  a  courteous 
bow  will  soon  find  himself  surrounded  by  courteous  and 
polite  pupils,  who  will  rarely  attempt  to  give  him  trouble 
in  school  or  elsewhere.  Besides,  this  method  of  treatment 
will  have  much  to  do  with  making  ladies  and  gentlemen 
of  the  children  who  otherwise  would  grow  up  rude  and 
uncivil. 

10.  The  Teacher  should  Consent  Cordially  when  Favors 
are  Granted. — Few  of  us  care  to  be  accommodated  by 
favors  which  are  bestowed  upon  us  grudgingly.  We 
prefer  that  those  who  favor  us  or  comply  with  our  re- 
quests should  do  so  cordially.  Children  do  not  differ 
from  us  in  this  respect.  They  dislike  to  ask  the  consent 
of  one  who  accompanies  the  consent  with  a  growl  of  re- 
luctance. Indeed,  such  consent  is  but  little  preferable  to 
refusal. 

1 1 .  The  Teacher  should  Permit  the  Pupils  to  do  Favors. 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  195 

— Some  of  the  M'orst  cases  of  seeming  incorrigibility  may 
be  reached  and  cured  by  permitting  the  child,  or  eveu 
requesting  him,  to  do  favors  for  you.  The  fact  that 
you  place  confidence  in  him  gives  him  a  more  exalted 
opinion  not  only  of  himslf,  but  also  of  you,  and  he 
forthwith  determines  to  be  worthy  of  your  good  opinion. 
When  the  school-room  is  to  be  ornamented  or  errands  are 
to  be  run,  do  not  always  give  the  w^ork  to  the  good  pupils; 
the  others  will  be  quite  as  anxious  to  accommodate  you. 
One  of  the  best  plans  to  win  the  good  opinion  of  the  bad 
boys  is  to  permit  them  to  favor  you  whenever  possible. 

12.  Tlie  Teacher  should  not  Worry. — Worry  wears  faster 
than  work.  A  reasonable  quantity  of  work  hurts  no  one, 
but  all  worry  is  more  or  less  unreasonable  and  hurtful. 
The  worry  and  fretfulness  of  the  teacher  cause  the  pu- 
pils to  worry  and  become  fretful.  This  lays  the  founda- 
tion for  disorder,  and  proper  control  and  discipline  of  the 
school  are  for  the  time  lost.  No  one  has  yet  succeeded  in 
doing  everything  he  desired.  The  teacher  must  of  neces- 
sity leave  much  undone.  His  pupils  will  now  and  then 
fail,  and  all  he  can  do  is  to  do  his  best.  Overwork  brings 
on  worry  and  excitement,  which  always  prove  harmful. 

13.  Co-education. — The  co-education  of  the  sexes  is  con- 
ducive to  good  order.  Boys  become  less  rude  and  girls 
less  frivolous  when  in  the  society  of  each  other.  This 
is  particularly  true  where  the  two  sexes  study  and  re- 
cite in  the  same  room  under  the  guidance  of  a  judicious 
teacher.  The  presence  of  each  sex  has  a  beneficial  effect 
on  the  other,  not  only  in  preserving  good  order,  but  also 
in  giving  the  members  of  each  more  confidence  in  them- 
selves and  greater  breadth  of  thought  and  culture. 


196  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

G.  Kules  and  Regulations. 

System  in  school  management  is  a  necessity,  and  a  few 
general  regulations  may  be  demanded  to  preserve  system 
and  make  the  school  machinery  work  smootlily  and  with- 
out friction.     The  following  principles  are  important : 

1.  Few  Rules  should  be  Made. — All  rules  with  penalties 
attached  are  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  They  are 
dangerous,  and  often  suggest  an  offense  to  the  pupil  which 
otherwise  would  probably  never  have  been  thought  of. 
The  more  rules  the  more  difficult  is  the  work  of  gov- 
erning, for  under  the  rule  system  every  infringement 
must  necessarily  be  noticed  and  the  proper  punishment 
be  inflicted. 

2.  The  Teacher  should  Seldom  Refer  to  the  Rules. — It 
is  sufficient  to  have  the  rules  known  in  order  that  the 
teacher  may  have  something  to  resort  to  in  justification 
of  administering  punishment  at  times;  but  the  rule  gov- 
erning the  case  should  not  be  mentioned  except  when  it 
is  broken.  To  refer  constantly  to  the  school  rules  is 
simply  to  set  your  pupils  to  thinking  about  them  and 
to  place  temptation  before  them. 

3.  Rules  should  be  Reasonable. — School  rules  should 
be  such  as  commend  themselves  to  the  sound  judgment 
of  all.  The  influence  of  public  sentiment  is  strong,  and 
if  the  teacher's  rules  be  such  as  to  win  the  favorable  con- 
sideration of  both  pupils  and  patrons,  he  need  have  little 
fear  that  there  will  be  any  difficulty  in  enforcing  them. 
On  the  other  hand,  unwise  or  unnecessary  rules  tend  to 
chafe  and  fret  the  pupils  and  produce  discord  and  dis- 
order rather  than  prevent  them. 

4.  Rules  should  be  General  in  their  Character.— School 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  197 

rules  must  be  general  in  their  application.  Special  cases 
can  usually  be  met  by  special  treatment,  but  in  general 
the  rules  should  be  made  to  apply  to  all.  There  may, 
of  course,  be  individual  cases  in  which  the  rule  should 
be  subject  to  exceptions,  as  where  the  enforcement  would 
be  productive  of  great  harm  to  a  nervous  or  a  deformed 
child.  Rules  should  be  general  also  in  their  specifica- 
tions, not  pointing  out  individual  offenses  and  attach- 
ing specific  penalties  except  where  specially  demanded. 

5.  Rules  should  Aim  at  Securing  the  Greatest  Good. — 
They  are  not  to  be  made  for  the  convenience  and  com- 
fort of  the  teacher,  but  to  protect  the  rights  of  the 
pupils  and  preserve  the  order  and  harmony  of  the 
school  as  a  whole.  Their  aim  should  be  to  secure  the 
greatest  good*  to  the  greatest  number.  Such  rules  will 
commend  themselves  and  secure  compliance  to  their  re- 
quirements, because  they  are  reasonable  and  wise. 

6.  Special  Rules  should  be  Adopted  only  when  they  be- 
come Necessary. — Tiie  teacher  who  draws  up  his  rules  and 
regulations  in  advance  will  find  quite  as  much  trouble  in 
attempting  to  enforce  them  as  he  experiences  in  control- 
ling and  directing  the  school.  Indeed,  the  fewer  rules 
one  attempts  to  enforce  the  more  successful  will  be  his 
discipline.  Pupils  soon  learn  to  recognize  the  fact  that 
the  teacher  is  willing  to  trust  them  and  has  confidence  in 
them,  but  when  they  find  themselves  hedged  in  on  every 
side  by  specific  rules  the  natural  questions  which  arise  are 
not,  Is  this  right?    Will  the  teacher  approve  of  it?   but 

>  rather.  Is  this  prohibited?  Is  there  any  rule  forbidding  it? 
The  teacher  is  entirely  safe  in  going  into  school  without 
a  single  rule,  and  informing  his  pupils  that  he  has  faith 
in  them  that  they  will  try  to  do  what  they  believe  to  be 


198  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

right.     Each  uccrled  rule  may  theu  be  made  when  the 
nocGssity  for  it  arises. 

7.  Rules  should  be  Such  as  can  be  Enforced. — Such  rules 
as  are  merely  ornamental,  and  such  as  are  placed  in  the 
list  merely  to  frighten  pupils,  are  not  only  unwise,  but 
also  absurd.  Among  rules  of  this  character  may  be 
mentioned  all  such  as  affix  corporal  punishment  as  a 
penalty  where  ability  to  enforce  the  rule  or  administer 
the  punishment  depends  altogether  on  the  physical  de- 
velopment and  courage  of  the  teacher.  To  permit  rules 
to  remain  on  the  list  without  attempting  to  enforce  them 
or  punish  when  the  rules  are  disobeyed  is  worse  than  to 
have  no  rules  at  all. 

8.  Rules  should  not  be  Inflexible. — Xo  rules  are  so  mis- 
chievous and  absurd  as  those  which  measure* out  certain 
punishments  for  particular  offenses,  without  taking  into 
consideration  the  motive  or  the  circumstances  which  may 
have  led  to  breaking  the  rule.  Thus,  a  rule  which  pro- 
hibits all  whispering,  without  inquiring  into  the  motive 
which  caused  the  violation  of  the  rule,  is  both  unwise 
and  unjust.  It  recognizes  no  distinction  between  inno- 
cent infringement  of  a  rule  and  willful  disobedience. 
The  teacher  who  insists  upon  inflexible  rules,  or  rather 
invariable  punishments  for  the  violation  of  rules,  will 
frequently  find  himself  placed  in  the  unpleasant  dilemma 
of  being  compelled  to  administer  punishment  when  he 
knows  himself  to  be  doing  wrong,  or  permit  a  violation 
of  his  rules  to  go  unpunished. 

9.  The  Pupils  should  be  Permitted  to  Assist  in  Adopting 
the  Rules. — It  is  a  good  plan  when  a  rule  becomes  neces- 
sary to  give  the  pupils  a  voice  in  its  adoption.  They  will 
rarely  abuse  their  privileges,  and  when  once  the  rule  is 


scriooL  GovEu^•ME^•T.  199 

adopted  they  recognize  it  as  a  law  of  their  own  making. 
Their  obedience  to  such  rules  also  becomes  more  cheerful. 
The  teacher  should  of  course  explain  to  them  the  neces- 
sity for  the  rule,  and  lead  them  to  vote  for  its  adoption  as 
a  matter  of  choice.  Should  there  be  a  few  pupils  who 
seem  inclined  to  vote  against  it,  a  call  of  the  roll  and  a 
vote  hjyes  or  no  as  each  name  is  called  will  usually  bring 
them  to  the  side  of  the  majority. 

10.  The  Teacher  should  not  be  Severe  in  Punishing  a 
Violation  of  the  Rules. — He  should  always  inquire  nar- 
rowly into  the  motive.  The  child's  physical  and  men- 
tal organization  should  be  well  considered.  The  teacher 
should  assure  himself  that  the  offense  is  not  the  result  of 
some  taunt  or  some  physical  infirmity ;  also,  that  it  was 
willful,  and  not  the  result  of  accident  or  thoughtlessness. 
Teacher,  see  to  it  that  you  are  cool.  Look  to  all  these 
points;  be  reasonable  and  just,  and  in  a  majority  of  cases 
you  will  find  no  necessity  for  the  infliction  of  punishment. 

Suggestions. — 1.  In  making  or  enforcing  rules  look 
back  to  your  own  childhood;  recall  your  own  experiences, 
your  notions,  your  impulses.  Put  yourself  in  the  place  of 
the  child  to  be  governed,  then  act. 

2.  Regard  all  pupils  as  trustworthy  until  you  find  them 
otherwise.  Children  rarely  forgive  a  teacher  who  suspects 
them  of  wrong  when  they  are  innocent. 

•  3.  Encourage  them  to  be  truthful  by  remitting  penal- 
ties as  far  as  possible  when  they  make  a  full  and  free 
confession. 

4.  Common  sense  and  the  ability  to  judge  the  guilt  or 
innocence  of  a  pupil  is  a  requisite  in  successful  govern- 
ment. 


200  SCHOOL    I^fANAGEMENT. 

5.  Allow  pupils  the  largest  liberty  consistent  with  their 
welfare  and  the  welfiire  of  the  school,  and  when  restric- 
tions are  placed  on  them  explain  the  necessity  for  such 
restriction. 

6.  Do  not  attempt  to  compel  pupils  to  inform  on  one 
another  under  threats  of  punishment.  Rather  let  your 
own  tact  govern  you  in  the  detection  of  an  oifense. 

7.  Explain  to  your  pupils  the  necessity  of  proper  de- 
portment and  prompt  obedience. 

8.  Do  your  own  governing  as  far  as  possible;  it  weak- 
ens your  authority  to  call  upon  the  Superintendent  or  the 
members  of  the  School  Board  for  assistance. 

9.  Give  no  unnecessary  commands. 

10.  Make  only  such  rules  as  you  are  willing  to  enforce. 

7.  School  Punishments. 
Both  divine  and  civil  government  recognize  the  neces- 
sity of  punishment  as  a  penalty  for  wrong-doing.  Without 
the  power  to  punish  there  can  be  no  government,  but  the 
necessity  for  enforcing  punishment  should  be  avoided  as 
far  as  possible  by  good  school  management. 

The  Objects  of  School  Punishment. 

These  seem  to  be  of  a  threefold  character,  as  follows: 

1.  Reformation  of  the  Offender. 

2.  Warning  to  Others. 

3.  Maintaining  the  Supremacy  of  the  Law. 

Punishments  which  have  other  than  these  ends  in  view 
are  manifestly  improper.  No  teacher  has  the  right  to 
punish  for  the  mere  purpose  of  gratifying  his  own 
lemper.      The   punishment  of  an   oiFeuder  will   deter 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  201 

others  from  committing  a  similar  oifcnse,  -while  at  the 
same  time  law  and  order  will  be  maintained  in  the  school. 
All  laws  governing  the  school  must  be  for  the  greatest 
good,  and  each  pupil  must  be  made  to  feel  that  the  law 
Ls  supreme  and  that  each  owes  obedience. 

,  Principles  Governing  Punishment. 

1.  Punishments  must  be  Certain. — It  is  the  certainty  of 
punishment  that  prevents  offenses.  The  certainty  of  even 
light  punishments  is  more  effective  than  the  severity 
of  those  applied  irregularly.  This,  too,  is  the  law  of 
Nature.  Offenses  against  our  physical  system  are  al- 
ways attended  with  bodily  pain  and  discomfort,  while 
those  against  our  moral  nature  are  followed  by  remorse 
of  conscience. 

2.  Punishments  should  Correspond  to  the  Magnitude  of 
the  Offense. — Here,  again,  both  the  moral  and  the  phys- 
ical laws  set  the  example,  and  the  teacher  or  the  parent 
who  administers  punishment  will  find  either  to  be  a  safe 
guide.  Slight  offenses  demand  slight  punishments,  while 
the  graver  offenses  demand  greater  severity.  It  is  better, 
however,  in  all  cases  to  try  the  lighter  penalties  first,  and 
at  all  times  avoid,  if  possible,  great  severity.  With  most 
children  the  thought  of  punishment  is  often  more  effect- 
ive than  the  punishment  itself. 

3.  The  Physical  Condition  of  the  Child  should  Modify 
the  Severity  of  Punishment. — The  teacher  who  would 
punish  a  frail,  delicate  child  with  the  same  punishment 
that  he  would  administer  to  one  wdio  is  rugged  and  of 
sound  ])hysical  constitution  is  little  better  than  a  brute. 
On  this  same  principle  also  the  delicate,  sensitive  nature 
of  girls  should  protect  them  not  only  against  corporal 


202  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

piinishraent,  but  also  against  all  other  forms  that  are 
likely  to  make  them  feel  that  they  have  been  clegraded. 

4.  Punisliment  should  be  Modified  According  to  the  Kind 
of  the  Offense. — For  all  violations  of  laws  governing  our 
physical  nature  we  suffer  pain,  ill-health,  or  physical  dis- 
comfort. Violations  of  laws  governing  our  moral  nature 
bring  upon  us  a  different  class  of  punishments  and  cause 
us  to  suffer  in  a  different  manner.  Here,  again,  we  have 
an  example  teaching  us  that  each  class  of  offenses  should 
have  its  own  kind  of  punishment.  At  one  period  in  the 
history  of  education  corporal  punishment  of  some  kind 
was  the  cure-all  for  every  sort  of  offense ;  at  another,  the 
dunce-cap  was  the  favorite  implement  of  punishment;  at 
another,  detention  after  school ;  at  another,  standing  in 
the  corner;  and  so  on.  The  teacher  made  no  discrim- 
ination as  to  the  kind  of  offense  committed,  but  punished 
all  alike,  with  but  little  variation  in  the  degree  of  pun- 
ishment and  none  in  the  kind. 

5.  Punishments  are  Related  to  Offenses  as  Effects  to 
Causes. — Here,  again,  natural  laws  give  us  the  example. 
Not  only  are  violations  of  hygienic  laws  followed  invari- 
ably by  physical  discomfort  or  ill-health,  but  the  infringe- 
ment of  each  law  brings  its  own  kind  of  punishment  as 
the  effect  of  violating  that  particular  law.  Undue  expo- 
sure causes  cold,  catarrh,  pneumonia,  and  similar  diseases. 
Excessive  eating  causes  indigestion  and  dyspepsia.  Un- 
due nervous  excitement  or  mental  application  results  in 
nervous  ]>rostration  and  possible  insanity.  Thus,  too,  each 
school  offense  has  its  proper  penalty,  and  the  child  should 
be  made  to  feel  that  the  penalty  is  visited  upon  him  as 
<he  natural  result  of  his  own  misconduct,  and  not  as  the 
arbitrary  exercise  of  power  vested  in  the  t(,-acher  as  the 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  203 

head  of  the  school.  The  justice  of  punishraeuts  inflict- 
ed as  the  natural  effect  of  the  infringement  of  some  school 
regulation  will  be  recognized  by  every  pupil,  who,  if  the 
punishments  are  made  certain,  as  they  are  in  Nature, 
cannot  but  feel  that  when  an  offense  is  committed  its 
a])propriate  penalty  or  punishment  must  follow  as  the 
result  of  a  violation  of  law. 

The  Degree  of  Puuishment. 

The  degree  or  severity  of  punishment  should  not  be 
arbitrary  or  governed  by  the  teacher's  temper.  Every 
kind  of  offense  should  not  only  have  its  proper  kind 
of  punishment,  but  every  grade  of  the  offense  should 
also  have  its  proper  degree  of  penalty  to  be  inflicted. 
The  teacher  should  be  governed  by  the  following  prin- 
ciples in  determining  the  degree  of  punishment: 

1.  The  Degree  of  Punishment  Depends  upon  the  Nature 
of  the  OfTense. — Slight  offenses,  or  those  of  a  nature  not 
likely  to  interfere  with  the  welfare  of  the  school  or  the 
teacher,  need  but  slight  punishment,  while  those  of  a 
more  serious  character  and  likely  to  lead  to  greater  vio- 
lations of  the  school  discipline  should  be  met  promptly 
with  punishment  of  greater  severity. 

2.  The'Degree  of  Punishment  Depends  upon  the  Motive 
of  the  Offender. — Many  seeming  offenses  are  not  meant  by 
the  pupils  as  offenses  at  all,  and  therefore  need  simply  a 
caution  and  no  punishment  whatever.  In  a  school  of 
fifty  children  the  teacher  must  expect  considerable  life 
and  no  little  noise,  but  he  must  not  think  that  every  act 
of  thoughtlessness  on  the  part  of  the  children  is  meant  to 
interfere  with  either  his  discipline  or  his  comfort.  Such 
offenses  are  without  motive,  and  in  any  well-regulated 


204  SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

school  they  must  be  expected  as  surely  as  we  should  ex- 
poet  lambs  to  frisk  or  birds  to  sing.  The  teacher  who 
would  punish  them  with  severity  would  prove  himself 
utterly  unfit  to  have  charge  of  children,  and  utterly  in- 
competent to  fill  the  post  of  teacher. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  offense  may  be  committed  with 
the  purpose  of  annoying  the  teacher,  breaking  up  the  good 
order  of  the  school,  injuring  other  pupils,  or  some  equal- 
ly malicious  purpose.  In  every  such  case  punishment  is 
necessary,  and  the  severity  must  be  determined  not  only 
by  the  motive,  but  also  by  the  magnitude  and  importance 
of  the  offense. 

3.  The  Degree  of  Punishment  Depends  upon  the  Frequency 
of  Repetition. — The  teacher  is  sometimes  unable  to  deter- 
mine the  motive  which  actuates  a  child  in  committing  an 
offense  for  the  first  time,  but  when  the  offense  is  frequently 
repeated  the  question  is  not  so  difficult  to  solve.  The  first 
offense,  therefore,  unless  the  motive,is  clearly  understood, 
should  not  be  punished  so  severely  as  the  same  offense 
when  subsequently  repeated.  The  more  frequent  the 
repetition  also  the  more  severe  in  general  should  be  the 
penalty. 

4.  The  Degree  of  Punishment  Depends  on  the  Difficulty 
of  Detection. — The  punishment  in  every  case  ought  to 
be  governed  to  some  extent  by  the  difficulty  which  the 
teacher  experiences  in  detecting  the  offender.  Conspir- 
acies in  school  are  always  more  difficult  to  detect  than 
open  violations  of  law.  They  are  also  more  dangerous 
to  school  discipline,  and  the  punishment  visited  upon 
those  who  not  only  commit  the  offense,  but  also  seek 
to  hide  it  and  their  connection  with  it,  should  necessa- 
rily be  more  severe  than  if  no  effort  were  made  to  screen 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  205 

themselvos  and  baffle  the  teacher  in  his  tfforts  at  de- 
tection. 

5.  The  Degree  of  Punishment  Depends  on  the  Age  and 
the  Sex  of  the  Offender. — A  moderate  degree  of  punish- 
ment to  a  hardy,  well-developed  youth  miglit  prove  a 
great  cruelty  if  inflicted  upon  a  small  child  or  a  tender 
girl.  In  general,  it  will  be  found  that  mild  corporal 
punishment  is  much  more  effective  with  small  children 
than  with  older  pupils ;  to  the  latter  an  appeal  to  their 
sense  of  honor,  a  reproof,  deprivation  of  privileges,  or 
placing  them  where  they  cannot  communicate  with  their 
associates,  is  the  most  effective  ])unishment.  I  doubt  if 
girls,  particularly  those  beyond  the  age  of  twelve,  ever 
should  be  subjected  to  corporal  punishment.  They  may 
be  corrected  in  other  ways  much  less  dangerous,  and  the 
wise  teacher  will  refrain  from  administering  to  them  any 
bodily  punishment,  the  result  of  which  may  be  lifelong 
injury. 

6.  The  Degree  of  Punishment  Depends  on  the  Temper- 
ament of  the  Offender. — Tiie  temperaments  of  children 
differ  as  widely  as  their  physical  organization,  and  no 
teacher  can  reach  all  by  tlie  same  method  of  procedure. 
The  choleric  and  the  sanguine  cannot  be  governed  in 
the  same  manner  as  we  would  govern  the  lethargic  and 
the  phlegmatic.  A  nervous,  sensitive  child  requires  dif- 
ferent discipline  from  that  which  we  would  apply  to  one 
of  a  dull,  plodding,  lethargic  disposition.  The  degree 
of  the  punishment,  as  well  as  the  kind,  must  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  varying  temperaments.  To  one  whose 
sense  of  honor  is  keen,  and  who  is  characterized  by 
great  nervous  energy,  a  word  of  reproof  is  of  more 
consequence    than    a   sound    administering  nf    corporal 


206  SCUOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

pdiiislimcni  to  one  of  an  opposite  temperament.  It  is 
the  (lull,  plodding  work-horse  that  needs  the  spur  as 
an  incentive,  and  not  the  lithe-limbed,  keen-eyed,  fleet- 
footed  Arabian  courser. 

Kinds  of  Punislimeiit. 

Punishments  may  properly  be  divided  into  two 
cJasses :  first,  judicious  punishments,  which  from  their 
nature  are  well  adapted  to  secure  the  objects  of  pun- 
ishment as  heretofore  stated ;  and  second,  injudicious 
punishments,  or  such  as  tend  to  defeat  one  or  more  of 
the  true  ends  of  punishment. 

1.  Judicious  Punishments. — Of  judicious  punishments 
the  following  seem  to  be  the  most  important: 

1.  Reproof. — This  is  of  a  threefold  nature — general 
reproof,  private  reproof,  and  public  reproof.  It  mny 
vary  greatly  in  degree,  but  it  should  never  degenerate 
into  scolding.  When  properly  administered,  it  will  usu- 
ally be  found  effective  in  showing  to  the  child  his  faults, 
and  at  the  same  time  influence  him  to  correct  them. 

General  Reproof  is  the  first  to  be  tried.  It  is  also 
the  mildest  in  its  nature,  and  in  the  hands  of  a  good 
disciplinarian  it  is  usually  eifective.  It  consists  simply 
in  tlie  nature  of  a  general  statement  that  a  certain  offense 
has  been  committed,  without  the  mention  of  any  one's 
name,  but  accompanied  with  the  request  kindly  made 
and  the  hope  earnestly  expressed  that  the  offense  will 
not  be  repeated.  It  is  wise  often  to  go  so  far  even  as  to 
suggest  the  opinion  that  the  offense  was  not  committed 
willfully,  but  was  probably  the  result  of  thoughtlessness, 
or  possibly  of  accident.  Pupils  thus  kindly  dealt  with 
rarely  fail  to  comply  with  the  teacher's  wishes,  and  the 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  207 

])lau  is  found  to  operate  |iiite  as  satisfactorily  with  young 
men  and  women  in  higher-grade  schools  as  with  children. 

Private  Reproof  consists  in  a  private  interview  with 
the  oifender,  and  it  may  vary  very  greatly  in  its  charac- 
ter. It  may  consist  in  showing  to  the  pupil  the  nature 
and  gravity  of  the  offense  he  has  committed,  with  a  de- 
mand tliat  he  shall  do  better  in  the  future,  with  an  earn- 
est statement  also  as  to  what  the  future  consequences  may 
be  if  the  offense  is  repeated;  or  it  may  consist  of  a  kindly 
talk  in  which  the  teacher  convinces  the  pupil  of  his 
friendship,  takes  him  by  the  hand,  offers  to  help  him 
avoid  future  trouble,  asks  him  in  behalf  of  himself,  his 
jiarents,  and  the  school  to  do  better,  encourages  rather 
tl)an  chides,  points  out  the  better  way,  and  lends  a 
guiding  hand  to  direct.  What  nature  will  not  be  sub- 
dued by  such  treatment?  What  boy's  heart,  however 
flinty,  may  not  be  softened  by  kind,  gentle,  and  affec- 
tionate advice?  Private  reproof  kindly  administered 
cannot  fail  to  win  the  esteem  of  the  child. 

Public  Reproof  should  be  administered  only  when 
the  offense  conmiitted  is  of  the  gravest  possible  nature. 
When  an  offense  is  committed  in  such  a  way  as  to  defy 
the  authority  of  the  teacher  public  reproof  is  permissible. 
Public  opinion  of  the  school  is  powerful  as  a  discipline, 
and  cases  may  occur  where  the  position  of  the  teacher 
can  be  understood  and  appreciated  only  by  a  public 
statement,  in  order  that  misrepresentations  made  by 
the  offender  may  be  corrected.  In  such  cases  public 
reproof  becomes  necessary ;  also,  where  tliei  e  exists  a 
false  sympathy  with  one  who  has  openly  defied  the 
scliool  discipline. 

In  general,  public  reproof  of  a  single  individual  is  a 


208  SCHOOL    MANAOEMENT. 

dangerous  punishment,  and  the  teacher  ought  to  avoid  it. 
Tlie  pupil  should  be  trained  to  self-respect,  and  great  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  desire  for  the  good  opinion  of 
his  associates  be  kept  alive  and  active.  Public  reproof 
should  be  resorted  to  only  after  general  reproof  and  pri- 
\'ate  reproof  have  failed. 

2.  Reparation  of  Damages. — It  seems  but  just  that 
when  injury  is  done  to  property,  whether  public  or 
private,  the  person  who  does  the  injury  should  pay  for 
the  damage  done;  and  this  same  rule  should  hold  in 
schools  as  elsewhere. 

3.  Performance  of  Neglected  Duties. — When  duties  are 
neglected  by  pupils  it  is  right  and  proper  that  they 
should  be  performed  during  such  time  as  may  be  ap- 
j)ropriated  to  play  or  recreation.  An  unstudied  lesson 
should  be  studied,  because  of  its  connection  with  what 
precedes  or  follows,  and  such  study  may  justly  be  re- 
quired of  the  pupil  as  a  punishment  for  his  neglect;  and 
thus  also  of  other  neglected  work. 

4.  Deprivation  of  Privileges. — It  is  always  proper 
when  privileges  are  abused  that  we  should  be  deprived 
of  those  privileges.  In  school  life  these  privileges  are 
many,  and  this  method  of  punishment  becomes  there- 
fore of  considerable  importance.  Restraint  is  as  neces- 
sary in  school  government  as  in  the  state,  and  the  teacher 
should  have  pow-er  to  apply  it  whenever  necessary  for 
the  general  good  of  the  school.  Of  the  many  j^rivileges 
which  the  pupil  may  forfeit  by  improper  conduct,  the 
following  may  be  named  as  among  the  most  important: 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  209 

a.  Recess. — Those  who  constantly  annoy  their  play- 
mates or  interfere  with  the  comforts  of  others  during 
play-time,  as  well  as  those  who  are  apt  to  be  profane  or 
vulgar  in  their  use  of  language  on  the  play-ground, 
might  with  propriety  be  detained  at  recess,  and  be  per- 
mitted to  have  their  recess  after  the  other  pupils  have 
returned  to  study. 

6.  Forfeiture  of  Seat. — This  is  a  proper  punishment 
for  those  who  annoy  their  neighbors  by  talking,  shaking 
the  desk,  or  causing  interruptions  and  annoyance  by  other 
means. 

c.  Dismissal  from  Recitation. — The  pupil  ought  to  feel 
it  a  privilege  to  recite  with  his  classmates.  Certain  con- 
duct is  improper  in  the  class-room  because  detrimental  to 
the  interests  of  the  class  as  a  whole  and  to  the  individual 
members.  Among  the  kinds  of  improper  conduct  dur- 
ing recitation  may  be  named  the  following :  Whispering, 
prompting  others,  copying  from  othei^s,  annoying  classmates, 
disturbing  the  class  or  the  teacher  by  noise,  rude  and  imper- 
tinent answers,  boisterous  behavior,  and  inattention  ;  for  all 
or  any  of  which  the  teacher  may  properly  dismiss  a  pupil 
from  recitation,  and  demand  a  special  recitation  when  he 
is  not  engaged  in  other  work. 

Should  the  class  be  disturbed  by  ill-behaved  pupils,  it 
is  best  for  the  teacher  to  act  promptly,  stopping  all  work 
for  the  time  until  pupils  become  quiet  and  orderly ;  and 
if  the  disorderly  ones  do  not  become  quiet  at  once,  they 
may  be  dismissed  for  the  time.  For  continued  miscon- 
duct of  this  kind  the  pupil  may  properly  be  placed  in  a 
lower  class,  and  thus  lose  his  class-standing,  which  is  a 
loss  of  privilege  in  itself. 

d.  Detention  after  School. — In  the  hands  of  a  judicious 

14 


210  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

tcaolicr  this  punishment  may  be  used,  but  it  is,  to  saj  the 
least,  a  dangerous  form  of  punishment.  For  pupils  who 
are  guilty  of  misconduct  on  their  way  home  from  school, 
or  who  are  inclined  to  quarrel  with  their  schoolmates, 
detention  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  so  as  to  deprive 
them  of  the  companionship  of  their  associates,  seems 
entirely  appro])riate.  Pupils  should  not,  however,  be 
detained  after  school  hours  as  a  general  thing  for  mis- 
chief committed  during  school  hours  or  for  failure  of 
lessons.  There  are  other  punishments  more  appropri- 
ate to  these  offenses.  When  pupils  are  detained  after 
school  the  teacher  should  never  leave  the  school-room 
until  all  the  pupils  have  first  been  dismissed  and  sent 
to  their  homes. 

Two  serious  objections  may  be  urged  against  detention 
after  school.  The  first  is  that  the  school  hours  are  already 
too  long  for  the  health  and  comfort  of  the  children;  and 
the  second,  that  the  detention  of  pupils  necessarily  in- 
volves also  the  detention  of  the  teacher. 

e.  Withdrawal  of  Favors. — The  approval  of  the  teacher 
is  always  a  strong  incentive  to  good  conduct.  No  more 
severe  punishment  can  be  inflicted  on  the  pupil  than 
the  withdrawal  of  this  approval.  We  are  all  glad  to 
be  praised,  and  when  this  praise  is  withdrawn  and  cen- 
sure made  to  take  its  place,  we  feel  the  punishment 
keenly.  This  is  a  punishment  to  be  inflicted  only  when 
the  pupil  shows  himself  to  be  deceitful  and  unworthy  of 
confidence. 

5.  Private  Apology. — It  is  always  proper  to  apologize 
for  a  wrong  done.  Every  properly-disposed  pupil  will 
recognize  the  justice  of  a  punishment  of  this  kini.     If 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  211 

he  has  done  an  injury  to  a  fellow-pupil,  either  accident- 
ally or  purposely,  it  would  be  proper  for  him  to  apolo- 
gize. If  he  does  this  freely,  in  many  cases  no  I'urther 
punishment  should  be  administered,but  where  the  injury 
to  another  has  resulted  in  loss  to  him  it  would  be  proper 
also  to  make  reparation  for  damage  done.  Private  apol- 
ogy to  the  teacher  is  also  an  effective  punishment  in  many 
cases  where  the  qffense  strictly  merits  a  much  more  severe 
form  of  punishment,  but  where  greater  good  can  be  accom- 
plished by  substituting  the  milder  for  the  more  severe. 

6.  Public  Apology. — This  is  a  punishment  which  is 
admissible  in  extreme  cases.  Most  pupils  would  prefer 
to  leave  school  rather  than  rise  to  make  public  acknow- 
ledgment of  their  wrong-doing  and  apologize  for  tlie 
offense.  Where  a  wrong  to  a  pupil  or  the  school  has 
been  done  publicly,  justice  demands  that  the  offender 
make  a  public  apology;  and  yet  even  here  a  more  judi- 
cious form  of  punishment  might  be  administered,  and  in 
such  a  way  as  to  benefit  the  guilty  as  well  as  the  innocent. 
Particularly  is  this  a  doubtful  punishment  to  apply  in  the 
government  of  students  who  have  passed  from  the  age  of 
childhood  to  that  of  youth. 

7.  Personal  Chastisement. — In  placing  personal  chastiser 
ment  or  bodily  punishment  under  the  head  of  judicious 
punishments  I  am  aware  that  I  shall  meet  with  some 
little  opposition  of  sentiment:  but  with  all  the  argu- 
ments offered  on  both  sides  my  personal  experience  war- 
rants me  in  saying  that  the  power  to  punish  by  the  inflic- 
tion of  bodily  pain  is  usually  a  great  check  on  misconduct, 
even  though  that  power  be  but  rarely  exercised. 


212  SCHOOL   MANAGEAfENT. 

a.  Definition. —  Corporal  punishment  is  the  inflicting  of 
lunlily  j);iin  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  offenses.  It 
may  consist  of  punishment  by  means  of  a  rod  or  otlier 
instrument,  tliis  being  the  usual  means,  but  it  includes 
all  kinds  of  punishment  \vhere  the  child  is  made  to  suffer 
pliysical  pain  or  discomfort  as  a  means  of  reform. 

6.  The  Right  of  the  Teacher  to  Punish. — The  law 
recognizes  the  teacher  as  being  in  place  of  the  parent. 
AVhatever  rights  the  parent  has  under  the  circumstances 
are  delegated  for  the  time  to  the  teacher.  Neither  dare 
punish  with  undue  severity  without  making  himself 
amenable  to  tlie  law.  Where  no  statute  exists  the  law 
of  custom  gives  to  the  teacher  the  right  and  power  to 
punish  within  certain  limits.  By  some  local  School 
Boards,  and  indeed  by  some  States,  this  power  is  denied 
to  the  teacher. 

c.  The  Law  of  Prohibition. — The  law  which  prohibits 
the  teacher  from  using  corporal  punishment  is  of  doubt- 
fid  expediency.  It  is  true,  many  teachers  punish  unwisely 
and  with  too  great  frequency,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  good 
reason  why  the  hands  of  a  faithful  teacher  should  be  tied 
because  incompetents  abuse  the  power  entrusted  to  them. 
It  were  better  to  dismiss  persons  who  cannot  govern  with- 
out corporal  punishment,  and  let  this  be  held  as  the  last 
'reserve  force  to  be  used  by  the  competent  teacher,  the 
pupils  understanding  that  the  teacher  has  the  power  to 
inflict  this  kind  of  punishment  in  extreme  cases. 

d.  The  Better  Plan. — A  better  plan  than  that  of  pro- 
hibiting corporal  punishment  by  law  would  be  to  have 
teachers  report  at  the  close  of  each  month  to  the  School 
Board  or  to  the  Superintendent  the  number  of  cases  in 
which  corporal  punishment  has  been  inflicted  during  the 


&CIIOOL    GOVERNMENT.  213 

niontli,  togetlier  with  the  oflTcnsc  for  which  the  pupil  was 
punished.  Many  a  teacher  would  be  ashamevl  of  his  rec- 
ord, and  the  number  reported  would  grow  rapidly  less. 
This  would  cause  a  practical  abolition  of  corporal  pun- 
ishment, and  yet  the  power  and  its  moral  effect  would 
remain  as  an  incentive  to  good  behavior, 

e.  Corporal  Punishment  of  Doubtful  Expediency. — This 
kind  of  punishment  is  the  weapon  of  the  weak  teacher. 
One  whose  experience  has  taught  him  to  govern  by  higher 
and  better  motives  rarely,  if  ever,  finds  it  necessary  to  use 
corporal  punishment.  It  is  always  likely  to  provoke  the 
hostility  of  parents  and  involve  the  teacher  in  difficulties. 
Indeed,  there  is  great  danger  of  losing  the  esteem  and 
good-will  of  both  pupils  and  parents.  There  is  prob- 
ably no  method  of  punishment  liable  to  greater  abuse, 
or  one  where  greater  cruelty  or  revenge  may  be  visited 
upon  a  pupil  under  the  disguise  of  kindness  and  neces- 
sity. It  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to  convince  chil- 
dren that  you  whip  them  because  you  love  them  and 
because  it  is  necessary,  and  it  is  quite  as  difficult  some- 
times to  convince  yourself  of  the  fact. 

/.  Principles  Governing  the  Use  of  Corporal  Punishment. 
— Corporal  punishment  should  be  used  only  in  extreme 
cases,  and  then  only  in  accordance  with  the  following 
principles : 

1.  It  should  be  Moderate. — The  law  wisely  protects  the 
child  from  all  manner  of  cruel  punishment.  If  punish- 
ment is  administered  as  a  corrective,  there  is  no  necessity 
for  extreme  severity.  The  moral  effect  will  be  quite  as 
good  though  the  pain  be  not  so  great. 

2.  It  should  be  Administered  in  Private. — Private 
punishment  is  more  effective  than  j)ublic,  but  c(  rporal 


214  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

punishment  should  be  administered  in  the  presiuice  of 
a  witness  or  two,  though  it  be  administered  privately,  in 
order  that  the  child  may  not  misrepresent  both  the  teach- 
er's manner  and  the  severity  of  the  punishment,  as  he 
might  if  no  witnesses  were  present. 

3.  It  should  be  Deliberate. — The  teacher  should  never 
punish  when  angry.  A  day's  reflection  on  the  matter 
may  give  him  an  entirely  different  view  of  the  case,  and 
all  necessity  for  punishment  may  possibly  be  avoided,  or 
the  pupil  may  repent  of  his  wrong  and  be  willing  to  sub- 
mit to  any  other  proper  punishment.  AVhen  angry  the 
teacher  may  punish  too  severely,  and  thus  entirely  de- 
stroy the  moral  effect  of  the  punishment. 

4.  The  Instrument  of  Punishment  should  he  Appropriate. 
— The  choice  is  usually  a  switch  or  a  rod.  Either  of 
these  is  liable,  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances, 
to  leave  marks  and  furnish  the  basis  for  prosecutions 
and  lawsuits.  A  better  implement  would  be  one  which, 
while  it  causes  quite  as  much  pain,  does  not  leave  ridges 
or  marks  on  the  skin.  A  flat  ferule  or  a  piece  of  lath 
answers  the  purpose  admirably. 

5.  Punishment  should  be  Administered  on  the  Muscular 
Parts  of  the  Body. — This  needs  little  argument.  All 
other  parts  of  the  body  are  liable  to  injury.  Even 
the  shoulders  are  not  a  proper  portion  of  the  body  to 
receive  punishment,  because  of  the  fact  that  punishment 
applied  here  may  cause  serious  nervous  diseases. 

6.  Punishment  should  Never  be  Inflicted  on  the  Head  or 
the  Hands. — All  punishment  inflicted  on  the  head  or  the 
ears  is  cruel.  Pulling  the  ears,  striking  the  head  with  a 
book,  and  similar  punishments,  are  extremely  dangerous. 
Punishing  on  the  hands  is  but  little  better.     The  haud^ 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  215 

as  the  organ  of  touch,  is  too  sensitive  to  admit  of  punish- 
ment without  danger  of  lifelong  injury. 

Cautions  ou  Corporal  Pimishment. 

Observe  the  following  cautions  in  administering  coi- 
poral  punishment : 

1.  Be  Certain  of  the  Pupil's  Guilt  before  Punishing. — 
Never  punish  until  you  have  looked  on  all  sides  of  the 
case  and  convinced  yourself  beyond  a  doubt  that  the 
offender  is  guilty.  If  there  be  any  doubt,  give  the 
pupil  the  benefit  of  that  doubt. 

2.  Postpone  Punishment  until  You  can  Administer  it 
Coolly  and  Deliberately. — If  you  do  not  change  your 
determination  entirely,  your  punishment  will  be  at  least 
much  more  lenient  and  much  more  reasonable. 

3.  Consult  with  the  Child's  Parents  if  the  Punishment  is 
to  be  Severe. — This  may  save  you  much  trouble  and  future 
embarrassment.  The  parent  may  be  willing  to  inflict  the 
punishment  himself,  and  thus  relieve  you  of  mueli  respon- 
sibility. Of  course  cases  demanding  immediate  attention 
must  be  an  exception. 

4.  Appeal  to  the  Sense  of  Honor  First, — If  there  seems 
a  necessity  for  corporal  punishment,  it  is  always  safe  to 
appeal  to  the  child's  sense  of  honor  before  deciding  to 
administer  punishment.  He  may  be  thoroughly  repent- 
ant, and  anxious  to  do  better  and  make  amends  for  his 
offense,  in  which  case  the  punishment  becomes  unnecessary. 

5.  Inflict  Corporal  Punishment  Publicly  only  when  the 
Offense  is  a  Willful  Defiance  of  Authority. — In  such  case 
the  punishment  may  be  administered  without  delay  and 
in  the  presence  of  the  school.  If  the  pupils  are  well- 
disposed  they  will  indorse  your  action. 


213  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

6.  After  the  Punishment  Treat  the  Pupil  Kindly. — 
Nothing  will  do  more  to  convince  him  of  his  wrong 
action  speedily  than  showing  him  you  punished  not 
from  clioice,  but  from  necessity ;  and  this  you  can  best 
show  by  restoring  the  offender  to  your  favor  immediate- 
ly after  the  punishment. 

8.  Suspension. — Among  the  judicious  punishments  is 
a  temporary  suspension  from  school  privileges.  This 
is  a  punishment  which  is  liable  to  do  great  injury  to 
the  child,  and  it  should  be  used  among  the  very  last. 
A  blot  seems  to  go  with  the  suspension  which  often 
mars  the  record  of  one's  life. 

The  chief  caitses  which  loould  justify  suspension  are  the 
following,  but  it  is  not  argued  that  suspension  should 
take  place  in  every  case  here  cited : 

1.  Insubordination. — Pupils  may  be  so  unwilling  to 
to  submit  to  the  regulations  of  a  school  that  they  inter- 
fere with  its  welfare.  They  may  destroy,  or  seek  to 
destroy,  its  good  name.  They  may  be  inclined  to  create 
rebellion  and  strife,  and  enter  into  a  conspiracy  to  break 
down  the  teacher's  authority.  In  such  cases  the  teacher 
has  the  undoubted  right  to  suspend  the  offenders. 

2.  Truancy. — While  a  confirmed  habit  of  irregular  at- 
tendance justifies  the  teacher  in  suspending  the  offender 
on  the  ground  of  retarding  the  progress  of  the  school, 
great  care  should  be  exercised  in  applying  the  penalty. 
The  danger  is  that  of  suspending  on  too  slight  provoca- 
tion. Every  other  means  should  be  used  to  secure  regu- 
lar attendance  and  break  up  truancy  before  resorting  to 
suspension.  Indeed,  this  is  simply  an  acknowledgment 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  that  he  cannot  secure  regular 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  217 

att€iKlance,  and  therefore  prefers  not  to  receive  the  irreg- 
ular pupils. 

3.  Gross  Misconduct. — Pupils  of  immoral  thaiacter  are 
out  of  place  in  the  ordinary  school.  Those  possessed  of 
habits  which  in  a  grown  person  would  send  him  to  pris- 
on ouo-ht  to  be  consigned  to  reform  schools  or  houses 
of  correction.  We  cannot  be  too  careful  as  to  the  moral 
character  of  the  associates  of  our  children.  The  seeds 
of  moral  poison  are  often  sown  in  the  school-room  and 
on  the  play-ground  without  detection  under  the  very  eye 
of  the  teacher. 

4.  Habitual  Idleness. — Of  this  fault  also  it  may  be  said 
that  while  a  teacher  would  be  justifiable  in  suspending  a 
confirmed  idler,  it  is  of  doubtful  policy  to  use  the  power 
so  long  as  there  is  a  possible  means  left  of  reclaiming 
the  child  and  interesting  him  in  the  school  work. 

The  Power  to  Suspend. — This  power  belongs  to  the 
teacher.  He  is  the  governor  and  ruler  of  the  school, 
and  the  power  is  rightly  placed  in  his  hands.  Were  it 
otherwise,  a  faithful  teacher  might  constantly  be  annoyed 
by  the  utter  worthlessness  of  some  pupils,  and  yet  be 
powerless  to  conduct  his  school  properly  and  rid  it  of 
the  disturbing  elements,  because  of  the  negligence  or  re- 
fusal to  act  on  the  part  of  those  in  whom  the  right  of 
suspension  might  be  vested.  The  laws  of  some  States 
give  to  the  teacher  the  right  to  suspend  for  an  indefinite 
time  until  the  pupil  is  reinstated  by  the  Board  of  Di- 
rectors. 

When  the  teacher  finds  it  necessary  to  suspend  a  pupil, 
it  is  better  that  it  be  done  quietly  and  without  the  know- 
ledge of  the  school.  So  far  as  the  school  is  concerned,  it 
will  have  quite  as  beneficial  an  effect  as  if  done  publicly ; 


218  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

ami  as  regards  the  stutlent  suspenied,  a  chance  is  given 
liini  to  redeem  himself  in  the  future.  The  suspension 
i-an  of  course  be  announced  publicly,  but  the  eifect  is  to 
make  a  target  of  the  unfortunate  pupil,  and  the  stigma 
elings  to  him  for  a  lifetime.  Public  defiance  of  au- 
thority and  vicious  persistence,  and  but  little  else  than 
these,  ought  to  be  considered  good  ground  for  public; 
suspension. 

Length  of  the  Sentence. — This  must  be  governed  largely 
by  the  cause  which  leads  to  suspension.  The  sentence 
should  not  be  so  brief  as  to  make  it  of  no  effect,  nor 
should  it  be  so  extended  as  to  bring  the  school  or  the 
teacher  into  contempt  and  subject  the  latter  to  the  charge 
of  suspending  for  spite.  Reformation  is  what  is  desired, 
and  as  soon  as  the  pupil  is  willing  to  make  proper  ac- 
knowledgments his  sentence  should  be  removed  and  he 
be  permitted  to  resume  his  place  in  school.  Teachers 
in  public  schools  have  not  always  the  power  to  fix  the 
length  of  sentence;  this,  then,  should  be  done  by  the 
School  Board,  but  always  in  such  a  way  as  to  sustain 
the  teacher  when  he  is  ricrht. 

When  a  pupil  is  readmitted  the  teacher  should  never 
show,  either  by  act  or  word,  that  the  past  in  his  conduct 
is  i-emembered.  We  wander  too  far  sometimes  from  the 
true  Christian  standard  in  condemning  the  one  who  lias 
sii^ned.  We  should  rather  put  out  a  helping  hand  to 
him  who  is  trying  to  redeem  his  reputation  and  regain 
his  place  in  the  esteem  of  the  teacher  and  the  school. 

9.  Expulsion. — Suspension,  as  has  been  explained,  is 
a  temporary  sentence.  Expulsion  severs  the  pupil's 
connection    with    the    school    permanently,    unless    the 


SCHOOL  GOVERNMENT.  219 

school  authorities  should  see  fit  to  reinstate  him  by 
withdrawing  the  sentence.  Expulsion  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  a  reformatory  punishment,  for  the  reason 
that  the  sentence  shuts  off  the  pupil  permanently  from 
all  school  privileges.  It  has  for  its  object  the  good  of 
the  school  alone,  as  capital  punishment  has  the  good  of 
the  state. 

The  offenses  which  may  be  taken  as  a  just  ca,use  for 
expulsion  are  of  the  gravest  possible  nature.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  chief: 

1.  Gross  Immorality. — A  student  whose  moral  charac- 
ter is  so  debased  as  likely  to  work  evil  to  the  remainder 
of  the  school,  or  whose  conduct  is  if  such  a  character  as 
to  be  a  pernicious  example,  ought  not  to  be  permitted  to 
remain  in  school.  Particularly  is  this  true  if  he  be 
found   incorrigible. 

2.  A  Constant  Disregard  for  the  School  Regulations. — 
All  students  are  likely  now  and  then  to  infringe  school 
regulations  thoughtlessly.  Occasionally  there  are  stu- 
dents who  habitually  disobey  from  a  spirit  of  rebellion. 
These  should  be  met  with  firmness  and  be  expelled  at 
once.  No  act  is  more  justifiable  than  that  of  expulsion 
for  a  determined  opposition  to  the  school's  interests, 
whether  as  the  result  of  individual  malice  or  of  conspir- 
acy and  rebellion. 

3.  Dangerous  Conduct. — Under  the  head  of  "danger- 
ous conduct"  may  be  included  such  malicious  mischief 
as  impels  a  pupil  to  destroy  the  school  furniture  and  do 
injury  to  the  school-house  and  the  school  property ;  also 
the  habit  of  speaking  evil  of  the  school.  Such  conduct 
on  the  part  of  a  pupil  as  is  likely  to  destroy  the  harmony 
of  the  school,  break  down  its  regulations,  interfere  with 


220  SCUOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

the  riglits  of  other  students  to  a  great  extent,  is  justifi- 
able cause  fbr  expulsion.  All  such  conduct  is  dangerous 
to  the  school  interests,  and  expulsion  may  be  applied  as 
the  punishment,  though  sentence  should  be  passed  only- 
after  all  means  of  reform  have  on  trial  proved  a  failure. 

Wlio  may  ExpeL — This  power  is  reserved  to  the  School 
Boards  in  public  schools.  In  normal  schools,  and  some- 
times, though  rarely,  in  graded  schools,  the  power  is 
vested  in  the  principal  and  the  faculty.  Teachers  in 
ungraded  schools  may,  under  the  laws  of  most  States, 
suspend,  but  not  expel. 

Cautions. — 1.  Expulsion  may  do  the  student  a  lifelong 
injury.  The  blot  is  difficult  to  efface.  Never  expel, 
therefore,  until  all  means  of  reforming  the  offender  have 
first  been  tried  and  found  inefficient. 

2.  Do  not  publish  to  the  world  the  fact  that  you  have 
expelled  a  student.  Ii  is  ungenerous  to  put  an  obstacle 
of  this  kind  in  the  way  of  one  who  may  afterward  try 
to  redeem  himself. 

3.  When  necessary  to  dismiss  a  student  from  school, 
do  it  quietly  and  without  the  knowledge  of  his  school- 
mates, unless  the  case  is  of  such  a  character  as  to  demand 
exposure. 

4.  Notify  other  schools  of  the  expulsion  only  when 
you  think  it  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  protecting 
them  against  a  student  of  vicious  habits  or  dangerous 
character. 

5.  Be  sure  before  you  expel  that  your  student  is  guilty 
and  dangerous  to  the  welfare  of  the  school. 

10.  Deportment  Marks.— As  to  whether  these  constitute 
a  judicious  punishment  or  otherwise  is  a  debatable  ques- 


SCHOOL    GOVERXMEXT.  221 

lion.  Each  side  of  this  question  is  advocated  by  prom- 
inent teachers.  The  objections  against  deportment  marks^ 
however,  seem  to  be  urged  almost  wholly  against  inju- 
dicious and  unjust  marking.  The  system  has  its  mej'its, 
and  these  oug-ht  not  to  be  overlooked  and  set  aside 
because  extremists  abuse  the  system  by  marking  down 
for  every  conceivable  offense,  imaginary  or  real,  inten- 
tional or  innocent. 

The  basis  of  this  marking  should  be  a  percentage, 
making  100  as  the  standard  of  perfect  conduct ;  between 
90  and  100,  exce/lent;  between  80  and  dO,good;  between 
70  and  80,  medium;  and  below  70,  unsatisfactory.  In 
reporting  to  the  parent  it  is  held  by  many  teachers  that 
only  the  words  perfect,  excellent,  good,  medium,  etc. 
should  be  reported,  so  that  the  special  percentages 
may  not  be  compared  and  thus  create  dissatisfaction 
among  the  children  or  the  families  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. 

Dej)ortment  marks  are  a  strong  incentive  to  good  con- 
duct. Many  pupils  obey  the  school  regulations  because 
they  desire  to  present  a  good  report  to  their  parents. 
Let  it  be  granted  that  the  incentive  is  not  one  of  those 
to  be  highly  commended,  it  still  has  the  force  of  an  in- 
centive, as  it  wins  for  them  the  approbation  of  parents 
and  friends  when  the  record  is  favorable,  and  the  chil- 
dren are  induced  to  make  a  favorable  record  by  good 
conduct  where  higher  motives  might  have  no  influence. 

2.  Injudicious  Punishments. — The  number  of  inju- 
dicious punishments  is  very  gieat.  All  of  them  ought 
to  be  avoided  under  air  circumstances.  The  following 
may  be  named  as  the  most  prominent: 


222  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

1.  Scolding. — This  is  never  a  proper  punisv.raent. 
Indeed,  a  scolding  teacher  soon  loses  the  respect  of  his 
l)upils.  The  less  the  teacher  scolds  and  the  less  he 
threatens,  the  greater  the  number  of  friends  he  will 
have  among  his  students,  and  the  easier  will  he  find  the 
discipline.  When  threats  are  made  they  should  be  ex- 
ecuted without  fail.  Both  scolding  and  threats  soon  lose 
all  force  except  to  irritate  a  class  and  make  it  noisy  and 
disrespectful. 

2.  Ridicule. — The  teacher  has  no  right  to  ridicule 
either  the  defects  or  the  mistakes  of  a  child.  Such  con- 
duct makes  a  teacher  deserving  of  all  the  contempt  that 
pupils  can  heap  upon  him.  It  is  the  teacher's  business  to 
encourage,  not  to  discourage — to  help  to  correct  mistakes 
and  train  the  pupils,  instead  of  making  sport  of  them. 
Sarcastic  remarks  with  reference  to  a  pupil's  ability, 
calling  him  a  dunce,  a  numskull,  an  ignoramus,  or  other 
equally  offensive  names,  is  contemptible  conduct  in  the 
teacher. 

3.  Confinement. — Solitary  confinement  in  a  cell  is 
among  the  most  severe  of  prison  punishments,  and  it 
is  applied  only  to  hardened  criminals.  Shutting  a  child 
in  a  closet,  putting  him  in  the  coal-cellar,  and  like  pun- 
ishments, are  no  less  cruel.  To  a  child  of  vivid  fancy 
or  nervous  organization  serious  injury  may  be  wrought 
by  a  punishment  of  this  kind.  Solitary  confinement  is 
not  only  injudicious  as  a  school  punishment,  but  it  is  also 
unwise. 

4.  Personal  Indignities. — Among  personal  indignities 
may  be  mentioned  all  those  annoying  punishments 
which,  though  not  severe  in  themselves,  serve  to  irritate 
a  chiM,  such  as  pulling  the  ears,  snapping  the  head,  pull- 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  223 

ing  tlie  hair,  compelling  the  child  to  wear  a  dunce-cap, 
and  the  like.     All  of  them  are  improper. 

5.  Personal  Torture. — All  kinds  of  torture  are  im- 
proper punishments.  Many  of  the  old-fashioned  punish- 
ments were  little  less  than  barbarous.  Such  punish- 
ments-as  compelling  a  child  to  stand  on  one  foot,  hold  a 
book  at  arm's  length,  kneel  on  the  sharp  edge  of  a  piece 
of  wood,  walk  barefooted  on  peas,  hold  a  nail  in  the 
floor  without  bending  the  knee,  etc.,  ought  to  belong 
to  the  Dark  Ages. 

6.  Performance  of  Tasks  for  Misconduct — No  pupil 
should  ever  be  asked  to  study  a  lesson  for  misconduct. 
There  is  no  connection  between  the  two,  and  a  love  for 
learning  is  not  instilled  in  this  way.  The  boy  who  is 
required  to  write  two  hundred  words  after  school  as  a 
punishment  for  pinching  his  neighbor  or  whispering  in 
school  does  not  see  the  relation  of  the  punishment  to  the 
oifense,  and  he  must  come  to  regard  his  teacher  in  the 
true  light,  as  being  either  tyrannical  or  ignorant  of  the 
art  of  school  discipline. 

7.  Degradation  of  tlie  Offender. — No  pupil  has  ever 
been  reformed  by  degrading  him.  One  of  the  chief  ends 
of  punishment  is  reformation,  but  this  end  is  directly 
defeated  by  attempting  to  visit  on  the  pupil  a  punish- 
ment which  will  degrade  him  either  in  the  eyes  of  his 
associates  or  in  his  own  estimation.  His  self-respect 
must  be  cultivated,  not  destroyed.  Teachers  who  sub- 
ject pupils  to  degrading  punishments  are  inhuman  in 
their  nature,  and  they  should  not  be  employed  in  any 
school. 

8.  Worrying  a  Pupil. — The  teacher  has  no  right  to 
worry  his  pupils  by  irritating  or  vexatious  talk.     The 


224  SCHOOL    MANAOE^rEXT. 

kind  of  grumbling  in  which  some  teachers  indulge 
hardly  rises  to  the  dignity  of  scolding.  It  is  rather 
of  the  nature  of  faultfinding.  If  the  child  makes  a 
mistake,  the  teacher  is  sure  to  complain.  If  he  is 
guilty  of  some  trivial  offense,  the  teacher  has  an  un- 
kind remark  to  thrust  at  him.  His  conduct  toward  the 
pupil  has  a  constant  tendency  to  vex  the  child,  and 
make  him  feel  that  the  teacher  glories  in  his  mistakes 
and  shortcomings. 

9.  Vindictive  Punishments. — Here,  again,  the  teacher 
forgets  the  objects  of  punishment.  The  aim  of  punish- 
ment is  not  to  gratify  one's  ill-temper  or  revenge,  and 
the  teacher  must  not  punish  in  a  spirit  of  this  kind.  It 
is  safe,  therefore,  to  say  that  he  should  never  punish 
when  angry,  because  all  angry  punishment  is  more  or 
less  vindictive. 

10.  Crael  Punishments. — All  punishments  that  exceed 
the  limits  of  moderation  must  be  avoided.  The  statutes 
of  most  States  make  cruelty  of  punishment  a  penal 
offense  for  which  the  teacher  may  be  indicted.  But 
cruel  punishments  do  harm  also  by  lessening  the  respect 
of  both  pupils  and  patrons  for  the  teacher  and  his 
methods  of  government. 

Cautions. — 1.  Do  not  make  threats  of  punishment  in 
advance. 

2.  Adapt  the  punishment  to  the  offense. 

3.  Do  not  try  to  make  pupils  learn  by  whipping  for 
unlearned  lessons. 

4.  Never  inflict  a  punishment  which  is  likely  to  make 
a  pupil  feel  that  he  ought  to  resent  it. 

5.  Seek  to  use  the  minimum  of  punishment. 

6.  Be  patient  with  the  shortcomings  of  your  pupils. 


SCHOOL    GOVERNMENT.  225 

7.  Do  your  utmost  to  prevent  faults,  so  as  to  avoid 
the  necessity  of  punishment. 

8.  Punish  only  for  willful  misconduct. 

9.  Do  not  reprove  those  who  try  but  fail. 

10.  Do  not  expect  perfect  order  in  the  school-room ; 
children  are  children. 

8.  How  to  Detect  Offenders. 

The  detection  of  offenders,  particularly  among  older 
pupils,  is  not  only  a  delicate  task,  but  sometimes  also 
one  of  great  difficulty.  Smaller  pupils  are  usually  open 
and  confiding  in  their  nature,  and  an  offense  committed 
by  them  is  not  difficult  to  detect.  But  among  the  larger 
pupils  there  is  a  disposition  to  avoid  informing  on  a 
fellow-student — sometimes  because  of  a  false  sense  of 
lionor,  sometimes  because  the  one  who  should  inform  is 
afraid  of  making  an  enemy  of  the  one  on  whom  he  in- 
forms. This  disposition  to  conceal  the  faults  of  others 
makes  the  difficulty  of  detection  all  the  greater. 

Several  methods  of  detecting  offenders  are  here  given, 
each  of  which  may  be  used  under  varying  circumstances. 
The  duty  of  detection  is  unpleasant,  but  the  teacher  who 
expects  to  sustain  himself  must  at  least  make  every 
effort  in  his  power  to  ferret  out  the  guilty : 

1.  By  Private  Confession. — One  method  of  detection  is 
to  make  before  the  whole  school  a  statement  of  the 
offense  committed,  and  then  invite  the  person  guilty  of 
the  offense  to  meet  the  teacher  at  his  convenience  and 
confess  to  the  fault,  with  the  prospect  of  a  full  pardon. 
Pupils  who  have  confidence  in  the  teacher,  or  who  may 
have  committed  the  offense  thoughtlessly,  may  often  be 
induced  in  this  manner  to  confess.     Much  will  depend 

15 


226  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

on  the  way  in  Nvliidi  tlic  teacher  receives  the  pupil  who 
conu\s  to  confess,  and  niudi  also  on  tlie  manner  in  which 
the  teacher  presents  the  matter  to  the  school.  The  pu- 
pil who  comes  to  confess  a  fault  has  already  made  rep- 
aration. He  needs  no  further  punishment,  and  the 
teacher  should  speak  with  him  kindly  and  grant  him  a 
full  pardon. 

2.  By  Negative  Questions. — A  very  effective  method 
of  detecting  an  offense  is  to  ask  of  the  whole  school  their 
connection  with  the  offense  by  putting  the  question  in 
the  negative  form.  To  illustrate :  Suppose  an  offense 
lias  been  committed ;  the  teacher  should  not  ask,  "  Who 
did  this?  Who  committed  this  offense?"  but  rather 
say,  "Those  who  know  nothing  about  this  offense,  or 
who  do  not  know  who  committed  it,  may  rise."  These 
should  be  dismissed  to  some  other  part  of  the  room. 
Those  who  do  not  rise  confess  that  they  know  some- 
thing about  it.  The  second  question  or  statement  should 
then  come  as  follows :  "  Those  who  did  not  commit  this 
offense  or  help  to  commit  it  may  rise."  There  are  few, 
indeed,  who  would,  if  guilty,  have  the  hardihood  to 
rise  under  such  circumstances.  Experience  has  proved 
this  to  be  one  of  the  most  satisfactory,  and  at  the  same 
time  certain,  methods  of  detecting  the  guilty. 

3.  By  Private  Interview. — Should  both  of  the  pre- 
ceding methods  fail,  the  teacher  may  ask  a  private  in- 
terview with  such  students  as  circumstances  seem  to 
point  out  as  the  guilty  parties.  There  are  always  some 
pupils  in  the  school  whose  general  character  and  conduct 
is  such  as  to  lead  them  into  mischief.  There  are  others 
also  who  are  always  conscientious  in  their  observance  of 
the  school  regulations.     The  private  interview  need  in- 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  227 

oludo  the  former  class  only,  and  in  many  cases,  if  the 
teacher  ])rocecd  judiciously,  asking  questions  but  making 
no  direct  charges,  lie  will  reach  the  truth.  Few  will 
have  the  boldness  to  make  false  statements  and  attempt 
to  adhere  to  them  without  cutau":ling  themselves  in 
their  testimony. 

4.  By  Public  Questions. — This  plan  proceeds  by  calling 
each  pupil  in  turn  to  rise,  and,  while  looking  the  teacher 
in  the  eye,  answer  such  questions  in  the  presence  of  the 
scliool  as  the  teacher  may  see  fit  to  ask.  Should  the 
teacher  fail  to  detect  the  oflPender  by  this  plan,  he  will 
still  secure  considerable  valuable  evidence,  if  his  ques- 
tions be  judicious,  which  will  be  of  much  service  to  him 
in  future  efforts  to  fix  the  guilt  on  the  proper  person.  Only 
the  gravest  offenses  justify  this  method  of  detection,  and 
the  teacher  should  use  it  only  when  he  finds  all  other 
methods  fail. 

5.  By  Giving  Time  for  Reparation. — This  is  not  a 
method  of  detection  exactly,  but  rather  a  preliminary 
proceeding  by  which  the  unpleasantness  of  searching 
for  the  offender  may  sometimes  be  avoided.  It  consists 
in  making  a  public  statement  that  a  certain  offense — as, 
for  instance,  the  taking  of  a  book — has  been  committed, 
and  that  a  certain  time  will  be  allowed  for  its  return,  but 
if  not  returned  at  the  time  specified,  search  will  be  made 
and  the  guilty  party  receive  such  punishment  as  the  of- 
fense merits. 

6.  By  Seeking  Information  of  Well-disposed  Pupils. — • 
Tattling  and  tale-bearing  are  justly  despised  by  pupils, 
but  that  is  a  false  sense  of  honor  which  induces  pupils 
to  take  the  ground  that  they  ought  neither  to  confess 
to  their  own  guilt  nor  report  the  guilt  of  others.     There 


228  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

are  certain  offenses  wliioli  when  committed  must  interfere 
more  or  less  witli  the  welfare  of  n  school,  and  ultimately 
destroy  its  good  name.  These  include  all  malicious  mis- 
chief, destruction  of  school  furniture,  theft,  vandalism  of 
all  kinds,  conspiracy,  rebellion,  and  other  offenses  equally 
grave.  No  well-disposed  student  should  hesitate  for  a 
moment  to  assist  the  teacher  in  detecting  the  perpetra- 
tors of  such  malicious  deeds,  and  every  teacher  ought 
to  feel  himself  entirely  safe  in  calling  to  his  aid  the  most 
reliable  students  of  his  school  for  the  purpose  of  expos- 
ing the  guilty.  Pupils  should  be  trained  to  feel  that  where 
the  interests  of  the  school  are  imperiled  the  honorable 
course  is  to  save  the  school  and  expose  and  convict  those 
who  would  be  guilty  of  destroying  it. 

7.  By  Constant  Vigilance. — Under  certain  circumstances 
all  the  preceding  methods  may  fail.  There  is  then  noth- 
ing left  but  constant  vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
He  need  not  be  suspiciously  watchful,  but  no  opportunity 
for  gathering  evidence  should  be  ])ermitted  to  pass.  The 
teacher  should  keep  his  own  secrets.  The  explanation  he 
confidentially  makes  to  a  trusted  student  may  reach  the 
guilty  one's  ears  in  an  incredibly  short  time.  Silence 
and  vigilance  should  be  his  watchwords.  In  many  cases 
the  guilt  will  come  to  the  surface  gradually,  and  when 
every  link  in  the  chain  of  evidence  is  perfect  the  ex- 
posure is  sure  to  follow, 

9.  The  Self.Reportiug  System. 

This  system  consists  in  having  pupils  at  the  close  of 
the  day  each  rise  as  their  respective  names  are  called  and 
make  a  confession  of  the  various  faults  they  have  com- 
mitted during  the  day.     By  some  teachers  the  partic- 


SCHOOL,    GOVERNMENT.  229 

ular  faults  to  be  confessed  are  specified  ;  as,  for  instance, 
the  number  of  times  tlie  child  has  talked  to  his  associates 
or  the  number  of  times  he  has  made  any  unnecessary  noise. 

The  System  Unwise. — A  serious  objection  to  this  system 
is  that  the  good  pu])ils  report  faithfully,  and  are  marked 
accordingly,  Avhile  the  evil-disposed  report  untruthfully 
and  receive  greater  credit  than  the  good. 

A  second  serious  objection  to  this  system  is  that  it 
trains  the  children  to  be  liars.  Feeling  that  those  ^vho 
report  the  fewest  faults  are  tliey  who  M'ill  receive  the 
best  marks  and  reports,  irrespective  of  conduct,  it  is  a 
short  step,  for  even  au  honest  pupil,  from  truth  to  false- 
hood ;  and  even  those  who  have  always  been  accounted 
truthful  have  such  temptations  placed  before  them  that, 
with  the  weakness  incident  to  the  moral  nature  of  child- 
hood, they  in  many  cases  become  untruthful. 

Confessing  a  Fault  to  the  Teachei'  should  be  encouraged, 
but  any  system  of  confession  which  charges  guilt  to  the 
pupil  who  confesses,  and  credits  the  guilty  with  good 
behavior,  is  to  be  condemned  as  faulty  in  principle  and 
vicious  in  practice.  The  schools  are  indeed  few  in  which 
weak  human  nature  can  stand  such  a  strain  on  conscience 
as  is  placed  upon  it  by  the  so-called  self-reporting  system. 

10.  Pardons. 

School  government,  from  its  very  nature,  must  have 
connected  with  it  the  power  to  pardon  those  who  are 
repentant.  This  power  may  of  course  be  abused  and 
the  teacher  become  too  lenient,  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
he  may  be  so  anxious  to  show  himself  just,  and  may 
adhere  so  rigidly  to  rules,  that  his  government  becomes 
cruel.    Justice  should  always  be  tempered  with  mercy. 


230  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

Two  pupils  may  commit  the  same  fault  in  school — the 
first  thoughtlessly  and  without  any  bad  motive,  the  sec- 
ond out  of  pure  malice;  the  thoughtless  pupil  is  sorry 
for  his  deed,  the  second  is  malicious.  Do  both  deserve 
the  same  punishment?  It  would  be  an  unjust  teacher 
indeed  who  would  not  jmrdon  the  first  and  punish  the 
second.  The  pardoning  power  must,  however,  be  used 
under  certain  conditions.     These  are — 

1.  That  the  Guilty  Party  give  Evidence  of  Repentance. 
— The  pupil  who  manifests  no  sorrow  for  a  wrong  act 
has,  of  course,  no  claims  on  the  teacher  for  forgiveness 
or  pardon.  Any  repentance  must  be  sincere  and  not 
feigned  in  order  to  escape  punishment.  A  feigned  re- 
pentance of  one,  and  a  consequent  pardon,  will  be  the 
example  which  others  will  gladly  imitate. 

2.  That  he  Apologizes  to  Those  he  has  Wronged. — A 
pupil  who  is  repentant  will  not  hesitate  to  apologize  to 
any  one  he  may  have  wronged  in  committing  an  offense. 
This  is  one  of  the  evidences  of  repentance.  The  teacher 
must  not  be  too  exacting  as  to  the  language  in  which  this 
apology  is  made.  Should  the  child  say  of  his  own  accord, 
I  am  sorry,  it  may  mean  more  than  the  profoundest  apol- 
ogy of  one  better  skilled  in  the  use  of  language.  With- 
out this  apology  to  those  he  has  wronged  no  pardon  should 
be  granted. 

3.  That  he  Make  Reparation  of  Damages. — There  may 
be  circumstances  where  it  is  of  course  impossible  to  make 
any  reparation,  as  where  personal  injury  is  done  to 
another.  In  such  case  the  offender's  repentance  and  his 
willingness  to  apologize  must  be  taken  as  evidence  of 
his  willingness  to  make  reparation  were  such  a  thing 
possible.     In    all    cases,   however,   where    reparation   is 


S(;iIOOI.    GOVERNMENT.  231 

possible,  as  where  injiiiy  has  been  done  to  the  school 
property  or  the  property  of  other  pupils,  it  should  be 
made  one  of  the  conditions  on  which  pardon  is  granted. 

11.  Puuislimeiit  of  OflFenses. 

It  will  be  sufficient  here  to  name  the  chief  offenses 
which  pupils  may  be  likely  to  commit  in  school,  to- 
gether with  the  appropriate  punishment  to  be  applied 
to  each  offense.  Many  other  offenses  may  be  committed, 
but  they  will  not  vary  in  principle  to  any  extent  from 
those  here  named,  and  the  details  of  the  punishment  are 
best  left  to  the  individual  judgment  and  good  sense  of 
the  teacher. 

1.  Offenses  against  Property. — These  may  be  against 
school  property  or  against  the  property  of  others.  They 
may  also  be  either  accidental  or  mali(uous.  When  the 
injury  is  accidental  the  pupil  may  be  required  to  restore 
the  property  or  pay  for  the  damage  done.  His  own 
sense  of  honor  will  also  lead  him  to  apologize  to  the 
owner.  If  the  injury  be  done  out  of  malice,  it  is  not 
only  necessary  that  the  pupil  make  proper  reparation  or 
payment  of  damages,  but  he  might  also  be  made  to 
apologize  for  his  offense,  not  only  to  the  owner  of  the 
j)ropcrty,  but  also  to  the  teacher.  Injury  to  his  own 
property  is  naturally  followed  by  a  punishment  in  the 
loss  of  the  property.  In  addition  to  this,  reproof  from 
the  teacher  would  be  proper,  and  the  offense  should  be 
reported  to  the  parents  of  the  child  which  does  the 
wrong. 

2.  P3rsoual  lujuiy.^-This  may  consist  of  a  personal 


232  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

injury  either  to  schoolmates,  to  visitors,  or  to  the  pupil 
himself.  A  personal  injury  to  a  schoolmate  may  be 
ppnished  by  a  reproof  if  the  injury  be  slight,  and  if  of 
a  more  serious  nature  by  the  deprivation  of  privileges. 
Pupils  Avho  quarrel  or  fight  at  recess  or  at  other  times 
may  with  propriety  be  shut  away  from  their  schoolmates 
during  playtime,  on  the  ground  that  they  are  likely  to 
interrupt  the  harmony  of  the  plays  and  do  personal  in- 
jury. An  apology  required  to  be  made  to  the  person 
injured  would  seem  in  the  case  of  injury  to  schoolmates 
to  be  an  appropriate  method  of  punishment. 

Injury  to  strangers  passing  by,  or  to  visitors,  may  be 
punished  in  the  same  manner  as  personal  injury  to 
schoolmates.  Injury  to  one's  self  brings  with  it  its  own 
punishment,  and  need  have  no  correction,  unless,  indeed, 
the  offense  be  in  the  nature  of  disobedience  as  well  as 
personal  injury. 

3.  Accessory  to  Injury.— Many  offenses  are  committed 
by  those  who  are  instigated  by  others  more  cunning  than 
themselves.  The  pupil  who  plots  mischief,  or  who  di- 
rects or  requests  another  to  engage  in  mischief,  is  equally 
guilty  with  the  one  who  perpetrates  the  deed.  Both, 
therefore,  should  receive  the  same  punishment  in  kind 
and  degree. 

4.  Temptation  to  Wrong-doing.— No  one  is  more  dan- 
gerous to  the  welfare  and  harmony  of  a  school  than  a 
pupil  who  by  his  bad  example  or  by  personal  influence 
tempts  other  ])U])ils  to  do  wrong.  Young  children  usu- 
ally imitate  the  elder  ones  in  their  vices  much  more  cer- 
tainly than  th^y  do  in  their  viHucs.     A  vicious  pupil 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  233 

may  do  infinite  harm  by  his  example,  and  he  needs  pnn- 
ishment,  not  only  because  of  his  offense,  bat  also  because 
by  his  offense  he  leads  others  into  vice.  It  is  mainly  by 
example  that  children  learn  profanity,  vulgarity,  lying, 
and  other  evil  habits  equally  offensive.  A  pupil  who  is 
inclined  to  tempt  others  to  do  wrong  ought  to  be  de- 
barred from  associating  with  them.  Should  this  pun- 
ishment not  prove  effective,  suspension  from  school 
should  be  the  next  resort,  and  in  extreme  cases  it  would 
be  proper  to  expel. 

5.  Laziness  and  Inattention. — Under  this  may  be  in- 
cluded negligence  in  the  preparation  of  the  lesson  as 
well  as  inattention  in  class.  For  the  former  it  would  be 
})roper  to  punish  by  requiring  the  puj)il  to  prepare  his 
neglected  lesson  during  playtime.  For  inattention  in 
class,  if  willful,  dismissal  from  the  class  and  requiring 
the  inattentive  pupil  to  recite  by  himself  usually  effects 
a  cure;  but  in  the  milder  form,  where  inattention  has 
become  a  habit,  calling  on  the  pupil  frequently  to  recite 
when  he  is  least  attentive  often  produces  good  results 
and  in  time  corrects  the  bad    habit. 

6.  Uncoutli  Manners. — This  fault  is  usually  the  result 
of  associating  with  uncouth  companions.  Sometimes  it  is 
the  example  of  parents  repeated  in  the  child's  life  and 
manners.  Children  that  come  from  uncouth  homes  are 
necessarily  more  or  less  impolite  in  behavior.  Kindness 
of  teacher  and  pupils,  with  good  example,  will  do  much 
to  correct  the  evil.  A  quiet  suggestion  from  the  teacher 
occasionally  made  in  a  friendly  way  will  be  appreciated 
and  complied  with. 


234  scHOor.  managemenf. 

7.  Improper  Habits. — These  are  manifold.  They  in- 
clude spitting  on  the  floor,  walking  heavily,  using  to- 
bacco, etc.  The  milder  forms  of  these  habits  may  often 
be  corrected  by  a  mere  suggestion  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  as  to  the  impropriety  of  the  habit.  Some  of 
these  evils,  however,  cannot  be  reached  in  this  manner. 
Among  these  is  the  habit  of  using  tobacco  in  the  school- 
room. Both  this  and  spitting  on  the  floor  may  be  cor- 
rected by  having  the  pupil  either  use  a  spittoon,  to  be 
cleansed  by  him  daily,  or  by  requiring  offenders  to  clean 
the  floor  daily.  Both  of  these  offensive  habits  ought  to 
be  thoroughly  broken  up,  the  teacher  being  careful  to 
set  the  example. 

The  habit  of  walking  heavily  over  the  floor  is  usually 
the  result  of  thoughtlessness.  It  may  sometimes  be  cor- 
rected by  a  mere  request  or  a  suggestion.  If  this  fail,  it 
may  be  corrected  by  having  the  pupil  go  back  to  the 
starting-point  and  walk  across  the  floor  several  times 
in  succession  until  he  learns  to  walk  quietly.  Pupils 
who  pass  to  and  from  class  noisily  will  see  the  pro- 
priety of  their  being  sent  back  to  come  quietly  every 
time  they  commit  the  offense. 

8.  Immoral  Conduct. — Possibly  there  are  few  schools  in 
which  there  is  not  some  immorality.  Some  pupils  are 
guilty  of  vulgarity,  some  of  profanity,  some  of  intem- 
perance. Each  of  these  vices  should  be  dealt  with 
promptly  and  firmly  as  soon  as  detected,  and  the  pun- 
ishment should  be  such  as  to  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the 
teacher's  disapproval  and  hatred  of  these  offenses.  The 
first  punishment  to  be  applied  is  the  deprivation  of  priv- 
ileges.   Vulgar  anil  profane  pupils  should  be  made  to 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  235 

understand  that  they  are  not  fit  associates  for  their 
schoohnates,  and  consequently  must  be  separated  from 
them.  Personal  chastisement  of  any  kind  rarely  suc- 
ceeds in  correcting  immoral  conduct.  Where  separation 
and  reproof  do  not  eifect  a  cure,  it  is  better  to  lay  the 
case  before  the  School  Board  and  request  the  removal 
)f  the  offending  pupils. 

9.  Rude  Behavior. — This  includes  all  attempts  at  an- 
noying either  the  school  or  the  teacher,  such  as  shuffling 
the  feet  on  the  floor,  unnecessary  coughing,  pushing  other 
pupils  from  the  seat,  answering  in  loud  tones  of  voice,  mak- 
ing unnecessary  noise  with  the  chairs  or  the  desks ;  also, 
incivility  to  strangers  either  in  the  school-room  or  on  tin 
street.  In  all  such  cases  it  would  be  proper  to  demand 
an  apology  of  the  offender,  to  be  made  to  the  person  who 
has  been  uncivilly  treated.  Noise  may  be  made  without 
the  intention  of  annoying  the  school.  In  such  cases  a 
slight  reproof  or  a  request  that  the  noise  be  discontin- 
ued will  usually  be  sufficient.  But  where  the  noise  is 
indulged  in  purposely,  the  pupil,  if  in  class,  should  be 
dismissed  and  be  directed  to  recite  his  lessons  privately 
at  such  time  as  the  teacher  may  find  convenient. 

The  teacher  in  class  may  often  secure  good  order  by 
stopping  class-exercises  for  a  few  moments  until  all  be- 
come quiet.  In  such  cases  he  should  be  entirely  dignified 
and  preserve  his  temper  unruffled.  Usually,  a  class  will 
become  quiet  at  once,  when  he  should  immediately  pro- 
ceed with  the  lesson,  without  taking  up  a  moment's  time 
to  scold  or  refer  to  the  interruption.  In  extreme  cases 
he  may  call  u])on  the  offender  in  a  quiet  and  dignified 
way,  mentioning  the  pupil's  name  and  requesting  that  he 


236  SCHOOL  managemp:nt. 

keep  quiet.  If  the  teaeher  is  sure  of  tlie  pupil's  guilt, 
he  should  permit  no  saucy  or  impertinent  retorts,  on  pen- 
alty of  punishment  for  disrespect.  Severe  reproof  may 
be  administered  to  those  who  purposely  disturb  the  order 
of  the  school. 

10.  Theft. — Pupils  frequently  appropriate  to  their  own 
use  the  property  of  others  without  appreciating  the  enor- 
mity of  the  offense  they  have  committed.  In  such  rases 
a  mild  reproof  and  a  restoration  of  the  property  taken  are 
all  that  is  required.  When,  however,  the  property  of 
others  is  taken  with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  nature  of 
the  wrong,  the  punishment  should  be  more  severe.  The 
property  should  of  course  be  restored,  or,  if  that  be  not  pos- 
sible, then  its  value  instead.  It  would  be  appropriate  also 
that  the  oiFender  should  be  required  to  make  an  apology. 
Should  the  oifense  be  repeated,  suspension  would  be  a 
proper  punishment.  Private  reproof  also  should  be 
given  in  connection  with  the  first  oifense,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent, if  possible,  a  repetition. 

11.  Usurpation  of  Rights. — Trespassing  upon  the 
rights  of  others  should  be  promptly  reproved  by  the 
teacher.  Trespassing  upon  the  property  of  others  may 
be  punished  in  a  similar  manner.  If  injury  be  done  to 
the  property,  whether  intentional  or  otherwise,  restitution 
should  be  made,  and  when  the  privileges  of  another  are 
interfered  with  by  a  pupil  he  should  be  required  to  make 
proper  apologies. 

12.  False  Accusation.— Pupils  frequently,  in  order  to 
bring  trouble  upon  others  or  escape  punishment  them- 


SCHOOL   GOVERNMENT.  237 

selves,  falsely  accuse  those  who  are  innocent.  The  offense 
is  a  serious  one,  and  the  punishment  should  be  })rompt  and 
effective.  In  all  such  cases  it  would  be  proper  to  deprive 
the  guilty  one  of  such  school  privileges  as  permit  him  to 
associate  with  his  fellows.  He  should  be  made  to  feel 
that  he  is  unworthy  to  be  their  companion.  Severe  pri- 
vate reproof,  in  which  he  should  be  made  to  understand 
the  cowardliness  of  his  action,  would  also  be  appropriate, 
and  in  extreme  cases  an  apology  should  be  made  to  the 
one  who  has  been  wronged. 

13.  Defamation. — S})eaking  evil  of  another  for  the  pur- 
pose of  injuring  his  character,  gratifying  one's  propensity 
for  gossip,  or  degrading  another,  is  an  offense  which  should 
be  met  with  prompt  and  severe  punishment.  It  is  an  of- 
fense to  which  the  jealous  and  the  envious  are  particularly 
prone.  The  teacher  should  do  all  that  is  possible  to  im- 
bue his  pupils  with  a  feeling  that  this  offense  is  cowardly 
and  that  it  ought  to  be  reprimanded  wherever  it  is  met. 
A  pupil  who  speaks  evil  of  others  ought  to  be  shut  away 
from  their  society.  Whenever  he  is  detected  in  the  of- 
fense he  might  be  required  to  ask  pardon  of  the  one 
whom  he  has  misrepresented  or  wiiose  character  he  has 
attempted  to  traduce.  He  should  be  made  to  feel  that 
no  one  but  a  coward  speaks  ill  of  another  in  his  absence, 
and,  while  the  teacher  administers  to  him  severe  private 
reproof,  the  enormity  and  wickedness  of  his  offense  should 
also  be  explained  to  him. 

14.  Speaking  Evil  of  the  School. — It  is  no  less  wrong 
to  slander  the  character  of  the  .school  than  it  is  to  slander 
the  character  of  an  individual  member  of  the  scijool.     A 


238  SCHOOL  management. 

pupil  may  rightfully  couiplaiu  to  the  teacher  with  ref- 
orouce  to  what  he  believes  to  be  weakness  in  a  school, 
and  the  teacher  ought  to  be  willing  to  correct  the  fault; 
but  the  pupil  has  no  right  to  misrepresent  the  school, 
either  to  his  schoolmates  or  to  others.  Reproof  will 
usually  correct  the  evil,  but  if  the  offense  be  continued, 
then  suspension  or  expulsion  must  be  the  final  resort. 

15.  Disrespect. — Every  teacher  should  attempt  to  merit 
and  secure  the  respect  of  his  ]>u]iils.  Those  who  strive 
to  secure  this  respect  by  their  own  personal  worthiness 
and  by  their  kindness  to  the  pupils  usually  succeed.  In 
some  cases,  however,  ill-disposed  pupils  are  not  won  over 
to  the  teacher,  and  they  take  every  opportunity  to  annoy 
him  and  show  their  disrespect  for  him  and  his  authority. 
In  such  cases  private  I'eproof  would  probably  have  lit- 
tle effect.  If  reproof  is  desirable,  it  should  first  be  given 
in  the  shape  of  general  reproof,  and  if  this  fail,  then  in 
the  shape  of  public  reproof,  that  the  teacher  may  turn 
the  public  sentiment  of  the  school  against  the  offender. 
Should  all  these  fail,  then  a  suspension  from  school  priv- 
ileges may  be  employed  as  the  final  punishment. 

16.  Disobedience. — This  offense  is  of  greater  magni- 
tude when  willful  than  is  that  of  disrespect,  because  it 
embraces  not  only  that  offense,  but  also  the  open  act  of 
defying  authority. 

Disobedience  may  be  the  result  of  thoughtlessness, 
and  in  most  cases  this  is  the  true  cause.  Children  are 
full  of  life,  and  we  must  not  expect  them  to  have  the 
dignity  and  judgment  of  men  and  women.  Thoughtless 
disobedience  needs  but  little  punishment.     A  simple  re- 


SCHOOL   GOVEUN.MENT.  239 

minder  of  a  neglected  duty  or  a  disobedient  act  will 
]>romptly  bring  forth  the  child's  apology,  "I  did  not 
mean  to  do  so."  The  teacher  or  the  parent  who  })nn- 
ishes  no  further  will  train  that  child  to  be  thoughtful 
and  obedient,  while  he  who  administers  severe  reproof 
and  finds  fault,  or  uses  any  other  harsh  punishment,  will 
have  good  prospect  of  succeeding  in  making  the  child 
hate  school  and  grow  up  heedless  and  thoughtless  of  all 
authority. 

When  disobedience  is  willful  the  punishment  should 
be  severe.  Where  pupils  openly  disregard  and  defy  au- 
thority corporal  punishment  is  justifiable,  and  it  may  be 
applied  if  the  teacher  possess  the  necessary  physical 
strength.  When  a  pupil  threatens  to  disobey,  prompt 
measures  must  be  taken  to  compel  obedience.  If  the 
teacher  be  not  strong  enough  to  administer  physical  pun- 
ishment, prompt  suspension  or  dismissal  from  school 
may  be  resorted  to  as  a  proper  ])unishment.  Should  tlie 
oifender  continue  to  annoy  the  school,  he  should  be  dealt 
with  as  any  other  outsider  comniitting  a  breach  of  the 
peace,  by  turning  him  over  to  the  officers  of  the  law. 

17.  Conspiracy. — One  of  the  most  serious  offenses  of 
which  pupils  may  be  guilty  is  that  of  conspiracy.  The 
moment  a  pupil  entei's  into  a  conspiracy  for  the  purpose 
of  destroying  or  interfering  Avith  school  authority  he 
becomes  a  traitor.  In  all  punisliments  for  treason  it  is 
safe  to  adopt  the  maxim,  "  No  compromise  with  trai- 
tors." Conspirators  must  be  compelled  to  submit  or 
leave  the  scliool.  With  pupils  on  one  side  plotting  trea- 
son and  rebellion,  and  teachers  on  the  other  attempting 
to  establish  and  maintain  authority,  there  ought  to  be  no 


240  SCHOOL  management. 

question  as  to  the  final  result.  Any  punishment  becomes 
justifiable  at  such  a  time,  and  the  most  severe  measures 
are  not  too  harsh.  Boards  of  Directors  should  be  prompt 
to  respond  to  the  appeals  of  the  teacher  and  expel  those 
who  plot  the  downfall  of  the  school.  If,  however,  the 
conspiracy  can  be  broken  up  by  using  corporal  punish- 
ment, it  is  better  that  this  should  first  be  tried,  leaving 
expulsion  as  the  final  punishment. 

18.  A  General  Disregard  for  the  Good  Order  of  the 
School. — Thoughtlessness  on  the  part  of  pupils  will 
always  be  the  source  of  more  or  less  disorder,  and  great 
patience  is  consequently  demanded  of  the  teacher.  Much 
disorder  arises,  however,  from  a  spirit  of  recklessness  on 
the  part  of  pupils,  and  a  disregard  of  what  is  demanded 
of  them  in  school.  Self-enjoyment  is  uppermost  in 
tiieir  minds,  and  this  becomes  the  ruling  motive  of  their 
actions.  As  a,  result,  if  they  feel  like  talking,  they  talk ; 
if  they  are  inclined  to  quarrel,  they  quarrel ;  and  so  on. 

The  kinds  of  offenses  arising  under  this  general  disre- 
gard for  the  order  of  the  school  are  numerous.  Among 
them  are  loud  talking,  walking  heavily  over  the  floor, 
calling  to  the  teacher,  making  a  noise  with  the  chairs 
and  the  desk-lids,  throwing  books  forcibly  upon  the 
desks,  boisterous  laughter,  forced  coughing,  leaving  the 
seats  without  permission,  etc.,  all  of  which  have  their 
special  modes  of  punishment,  as  heretofore  suggested. 

Talking  pupils  may  be  separated  from  the  others; 
those  who  walk  heavily  may  be  put  to  practice  in  light 
walking ;  those  who  call  to  the  teacher  may  be  made  to 
sit  near  him  on  the  platform ;  those  who  are  noisy  at 
their  desks  may  be  deprived  of  the  privilege  of  sitting 


SCHOOL,    GOVERNMENT.  241 

at  d('sks ;  those  who  throw  books  forcibly  upon  the  desk 
may  be  required  to  pick  tlieni  u])  again  and  lay  them 
down  quietly;  boisterous  laughter  and  unnecessary  cough- 
ing may  be  quieted  by  a  warning  look  from  the  teacher, 
to  be  followed  by  a  subsequent  private  reproof;  leaving 
the  seats  without  permission  may  be  punished  by  re- 
fusing to  permit  the  pupil  to  return  to  his  seat,  directing 
him  to  the  platform  instead, — thus  adapting  the  pun- 
ishment in  every  case  to  the  nature  of  the  offense 
committed. 

19.  A  General  Disregard  for  Study. — Pupils  who  are 
inclined  to  waste  time  or  who  neglect  to  prepare  their 
lessons  may  be  punished  in  various  ways.  Among  the 
most  effective  methods  is  that  of  making  their  class- 
standing  depend  on  their  progress.  Those  who  fail  to 
keep  pace  with  their  classmates  because  of  idleness  may 
be  required  to  join  a  lower  class.  Occasionally  their 
class-record  may  be  read  to  the  scholars,  and  the  com- 
parison be  drawn  between  the  studious  and  the  idle, 
showing  the  comparative  progress  of  the  two  kinds  of 
pupils.  Taking  away  the  play-privileges  from  those 
who  fail  to  do  their  school  work  is  also  found  to  be  an 
effective  mode  of  punishment. 

20.  Irregular  Attendance. — When  irregular  attendance 
is  the  fault  of  the  parent,  as  it  often  is,  it  would  be  unfair 
for  the  teacher  to  administer  any  punishment  beyond  that 
which  Nature  inflicts  in  the  loss  of  position  in  school  and 
class-standing.  Not  the  child,  but  the  parent,  is  the  one 
deserving  blame. 

Where  irregular  attendance  is  the  result  of  the  child's 

16 


242  SCIIOOT.    MANAGEMENT. 

dislike  for  school  or  his  aversion  to  study,  the  teachci 
should  meet  the  difficulty  by  trying  to  make  school  pleas- 
ant and  inviting  and  create  in  the  pupil  a  love  for  study. 
The  child  is  punished  for  irregularity  of  attendance,  partly 
by  his  loss  of  class-position  and  partly  by  the  greater  dif- 
ficulties he  experiences  in  the  study  of  disconnected  les- 
sons as  the  result  of  his  absence  from  the  school.  Tn 
addition  to  these,  a  proper  punishment  would  be  that 
of  putting  him  in  lower  classes  as  he  is  found  to  fall 
more  and  more  behind  his  classmates. 

21.  Truancy. — This  offense  adds  deception  to  irregular- 
ity of  attendance.  The  same  methods  as  heretofore  advised 
should  be  used  to  induce  the  attendance  of  the  child  at 
school ;  but  there  are  depraved  natures  which  cannot  be 
reached  by  even  the  greatest  patience  and  kindness  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher.  Truants  deceive  not  only  teach- 
ers, but  also  parents.  An  effective  means  of  breaking  up 
truancy  is  for  the  teacher  and  the  parents  to  work  in  en- 
tire harmony,  the  teacher  reporting  every  absence  as  it 
occurs,  and  the  parent  reporting  to  the  teacher  every 
time  the  child  is  necessarily  detained  at  home.  Con- 
stant vigilance  is  necessary  on  the  part  of  both. 

Where  a  truant's  example  proves  injurious  to  the 
school,  and  the  teacher  does  not  have  the  co-operation 
of  the  parent,  there  seems  to  be  nothing  left,  if  the 
pupil  does  not  feel  his  class  degradation,  except  suspen- 
sion or  expulsion.  But  the  teacher  should,  before  resort- 
ing to  either,  exhaust  every  other  means  in  his  power  to 
reclaim  the  pupil  and  teach  him  self-respect. 


CHAPTER  A^I. 
The    Teacher. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  argue  that  the  teacher  should  be 
qualified  for  the  work  which  his  profession  imposes  upon 
him.  The  unqualified  teacher  is  of  course  unfit  for  the 
place  he  occupies.  It  is  hoped  that  the  time  is  past  when 
every  one  that  chose  could  step  from  the  position  of 
plough-boy  or  sewing-girl  to  the  teacher's  desk,  and 
without  any  preliminary  preparation  attempt  to  manage 
the  school-children  of  a  community,  and  instruct,  guide, 
and  direct  the  minds  and  mould  the  characters  of -tlie 
future  citizens.  The  work  is  of  too  much  importance 
to  permit  its  being  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  untrained 
and  the  inexperienced. 

The  Teacher's  Qualifications  may  be  said  to  have  a 
fourfold  character — physical,  intellectual,  professional,  and 
moral. 

1.  The  Teacher's  Physical  Qualifications. 

1.  The  Teacher  should  Have  Good  Health. — He  should, 
if  possible,  be  a  person  of  good  physical  development 
and  sound  constitution.  Those  whose  nervous  organ- 
ization is  weak,  or  whose  health  is  such  that  they  are 
easily  unbalanced  by  excitement,  should  not  think  of 
becoming  teachers.  Good  management  and  good  teach- 
ing need  coolness  and  deliberation.     Dyspeptics,  if  in- 

243 


244  SCHOOL   MANAGEMExNT. 

clined  to  be  moody  and  morose  or  ill-natured,  ought  not 
i .  teach.  Their  example  is  an  unsafe  one  for  children 
to  imitate,  and  for  the  sake  of  their  own  health  as  well 
as  that  of  their  pupils  they  should  engage  in  work  of  a 
different  character. 

2.  The  Teacher  should  be  a  Person  of  Good  Hygienic 
Habits. — It  is  not  enough  that  he  enter  upon  his  work 
with  good  health  ;  it  is  necessary  also  that  he  preserve 
his  health  by  giving  due  attention  to  hygienic  laws.  The 
person  who  takes  upon  himself  the  work  of  the  school- 
room will  find  that  his  duties  are  by  no  means  light, 
and  that  constant  watchfulness  is  needed  in  order  that 
the  physical  system  may  not  be  caused  to  suffer. 

The  teacher  must  give  heed  to  the  following  hygienic 
suggestions: 

1.  He  must  give  due  attention  to  the  ventilation  of  the 
school-room,  that  the  air  may  be  as  pure  as  possible. 

2.  He  must  take  sufficient  exercise  in  the  open  air,  that 
his  blood  may  be  made  pure  and  life-sustaining. 

3.  He  must  eat  healthful,  nutritious  food,  and  enough 
of  it  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  health. 

4.  He  must  take  sufficient  sleep  and  at  regular  times. 

5.  He  must  alternate  work  with  recreation,  that  the 
mind  as  well  as  the  body  may  have  its  proper  degree 
of  rest. 

6.  He  must  avoid  the  use  of  stimulants  as  a  beverage, 
also  narcotics ;  the  teacher  needs  a  clear  brain. 

7.  He  must  give  due  attention  to  his  clothing,  that  the 
temperature  of  his  body  may  vary  as  little  as  possible. 

8.  He  must  give  proper  attention  to  light  when 
engaged  in  study,  that  his  sight  may  be  preserved 
uninjured. 


THE    TEACHER.  245 

9.  He  must  preserve  an  even  temper,  that  the  noise 
and  worry  of  the  school  m^y  not  cause  undue  nervous 
excitement  and  exhaustion. 

10.  He  must  give  proper  attention  to  bathing,  that  the 
skin  may  be  kept  in  a  healthy  condition. 

11.  He  must  give  attention  to  social  culture,  both  for 
relaxation  of  mind  and  for  the  good  it  will  do  him  to 
become  better  acquainted  with  the  community. 

12.  He  must  take  regular  physical  exercise  of  some 
kind,  that  his  muscles  may  become  strengthened,  his 
brain  be  kept  clear,  and  his  physical  constitution  re- 
main vigorous. 

2.  The  Teacher's  Intellectual  Qualifications. 

1.  His  Scholarship  should  be  Thorough. — The  teacher 
should  feel  that  he  has  mastered  the  branches  he  at- 
tempts to  teach.  A  knowledge  of  the  textbook  in  use 
and  its  contents  is  not  enough.  He  should  know  what 
other  textbooks  contain,  and  in  addition  to  this  much 
that  is  not  to  be  found  in  textbooks.  To  illustrate,  his 
knowledge  of  the  geography  of  a  country  must  be  broader 
than  is  given  in  any  textbook.  Cyclopaedias,  gazetteers, 
newspapers,  etc.  should  be  consulted,  that  he  may  have 
a  fund  of  knowledge  with  which  to  illustrate  and  add 
to  the  textbook  matter. 

2.  His  Knowledge  should  be  Broad  and  General. — All 
knowledge  gives  culture.  The  teacher  whose  know- 
ledge extends  beyond  the  branches  he  attempts  to  teach 
will  be  more  successful  than  he  who  knows  only  what  he 
attempts  to  impart  to  others.  The  teacher  whose  know- 
ledge includes  Algebra  and  Geometry  will  teach  Arith- 
metic better  than  one  whose  knowledge  of  mathematics 


246  SCHOOL.   MANAGEMENT. 

is  limited  to  Arithmetic  alone.  Thus,  alsc,  one  will 
teach  Reading  much  better  by  having  a  thorough  know- 
ledge of  Grammar,  Rhetoric,  and  Etymology,  or  Geog- 
raphy better  from  a  knowledge  of  History,  Geology,  and 
Mineralogy.  Each  study  helps  to  broaden  our  knowledge 
of  the  others.  The  broader  and  the  more  extensive  the 
knowledge  of  the  teacher  the  better  the  work  he  will  be 
enabled  to  accomplish. 

3.  His  Knowledge  should  be  Accurate. — Pupils  repose 
little  confidence  in  the  teacher  whose  knowledge  is  fre- 
quently found  to  be  inaccurate,  and  their  confidence  in 
him  will  be  still  less  if  he  is  unwilling  to  acknowledge 
a  mistake  when  he  is  found  to  be  in  error.  It  is  a  hard 
thing  to  acknowledge  a  mistake,  but  the  teacher  should 
not  hesitate  for  a  moment  to  correct  himself  or  admit 
the  error  when  his  attention  is  called  to  it  by  the  pupil. 
It  would  be  much  better,  of  course,  if  he  were  to  make 
no  errors.  Should  he  find  himself  unable  to  answer  a 
question,  he  should  be  candid  enough  to  say  so  frankly, 
or  offer  to  search  out  the  answer  for  the  pupil. 

4.  He  should  Keep  Pace  with  Current  History. — The 
teacher  who  does  not  keep  up  with  the  progress  of  the 
times  necessarily  retrogrades.  No  one  should  have  a 
more  thorough  knowledge  of  what  is  taking  place  at 
present  than  the  teacher.  He  needs  this  knowledge  to 
awaken  interest,  to  illustrate,  and  to  adapt  his  teaching 
to  the  times  in  which  he  lives.  This  knowledo-e  must 
be  not  only  of  the  current  events  of  his  own  national 
history,  but  also  of  other  countries  and  nations.  The 
teacher  must  be  a  politician  in  the  sense  that  he  must 
know  thoroughly  the  history,  both  past  and  present,  of 
his  own  country. 


THE    TEACHEK.  247 

5.  He  must  Have  a  Well-disciplined  Mind. — Discipline 
is  the  chief  end  of  etlucatiou.  The  teacher  who  hopes 
to  train  the  minds  of  others  and  impart  mental  discipline 
ranst  himself  possess  a  mind  well  disciplined.  The  teacher 
must  be  a  clear,  logical  thinker.  Every  thought  must  be 
well  defined.  His  knowledge  must  not  be  a  mass  of  dis- 
connected facts  and  details,  but  well  classified  and  sys- 
tematized as  a  whole.  One  whose  knowledge  consists 
of  disintegrated  fragments  is  hardly  prepared  to  give 
systematic  training  to  the  minds  of  others.  The  teach- 
er's knowledge  should  be  so  methodically  arranged  in  his 
mind  that  he  may  have  it  always  at  command. 

6.  His  Knowledge  should  be  Available. — A  lack  of  men- 
tal discipline  makes  one's  knowledge  unavailable.  We 
may  pursue  our  studies  in  such  a  way  as  to  gather  a  great 
number  of  facts,  and  yet  have  none  at  command  when 
most  needed.  The  teacher  should  be  able  to  tell  what 
he  knows,  and  tell  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  attract  and  in- 
terest his  j)upils.  He  must  necessarily  be  able  to  put  his 
thoughts  in  good  language  also,  not  only  that  his  pupils 
may  understand,  but  also  that  they  may  find  his  manner 
of  expression  such  as  is  worthy  of  imitation.  Ability  to 
communicate  our  ideas  readily  and  understandingly  is  one 
of  the  essentials  of  successful  teaching. 

7.  He  should  Have  a  Knowledge  of  the  Human  Mind.— 
A  knowledge  of  the  mental  faculties  and  their  mode  of 
operation  is  of  great  benefit  to  every  one  who  in  any 
sense  finds  it  necessary  to  influence  the  minds  of  others. 
In  this  respect  the  teacher  and  the  orator  find  themselves 
on  a  common  level.  But  in  addition  to  this  the  teacher 
must  know  the  relative  order  of  development  of  these 
faculties  and  the  best  methods  of  culture.     The  order 


248  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

of  studies  and  the  methods  of  teaching  each  individual 
study  must  be  harmonized  with  the  order  of  mental 
development.  To  attempt  to  teach  subjects  which  re- 
quire highly-developed  reasoning  powers  at  an  age  when 
the  child's  reasoning  faculties  are  yet  undeveloped  would 
be  not  only  useless,  but  also  mischievous.  The  teacher 
must  be  a  student  of  psychology  at  least  to  such  an 
extent  as  will  enable  him  to  understand  the  operation 
of  the  various  mental  powei-s,  their  order  of  develop- 
ment, their  proper  methods  of  culture,  and  the  studies 
best  adapted  to  the  culture  of  each. 

8.  He  should  Have  a  Thorough  Knowledge  of  the  Hu- 
man Body. — A  knowledge  of  Human  Physiology  and 
Hygiene  is  essential  to  every  teacher,  not  only  that  he 
may  know  how  best  to  preserve  his  own  health,  but  also 
that  he  may  know  how  to  give  the  best  physical  training 
to  his  pupils  and  care  for  their  health  and  comfort.  The 
physical  welfare  of  both  pupils  and  teacher  is  quite  as 
important  as  their  mental  welfare,  and  no  less  preparation 
should  be  made  to  promote  tlie  one  than  to  promote  the 
other.  It  would  be  well  for  every  teacher  were  he  re- 
quired to  pass  an  examination  in  Physiology  and  Hy- 
giene before  being  permitted  to  enter  the  school-room  as 
a  teacher.  This  knowledge  would  aid  him  greatly  also 
in  understanding  the  causes  of  disorder,  and  thus  enable 
him  to  manage  the  school  more  successfully. 

3.  The  Teacher's  Professional  Qualifications. 

Teaching  is  a  science.  Its  principles  are  readily  de- 
termined and  reduced  to  a  system.  Like  most  other 
sciences,  it  is  empirical.  Its  principles  are  the  result  of 
observation   and   experience.     School  Management   and 


THE    TEACHER.  249 

Methods  of  Culture  and  Instruction  enilrace  the  prin- 
ciples of  this  science,  and  they  may  of  course  be  taught 
to  those  preparing  for  the  work  of  teaching.  This  is 
properly  the  work  of  Normal  Schools  and  Teachers'  In- 
stitutes. But  no  agency  can  implant  in  any  mind  those 
elements  of  character  which  are  essential  to  success  in 
this  calling. 

Aptness  to  Teach  is  the  first  great  requisite  to  success. 
Teachers  are  born,  not  made.  Normal  Schools  may  de- 
velop latent  talent,  but  they  cannot  change  or  displace 
the  elements  of  character  which  Nature  has  implanted  in 
the  human  mind.  No  medical  school  can  make  a  skill- 
ful surgeon  of  one  who  is  awkward,  however  M^ell  it 
may  teach  the  anatomy  of  the  human  body  or  deftly  ex- 
plain the  principles  underlying  skillful  surgical  practice ; 
nor  can  it  make  a  kind,  sympathizing  physician  of  an 
uncouth  and  brutal  man.  All  it  can  do,  and  all  any 
professional  school  can  pretend  to  do,  is  to  develop  and 
train  that  latent  power  with  which  Nature  may  have  en- 
dowed the  individual.  It  is  the  business  of  the  Nor- 
mal School  to  acquaint  its  students  with  the  best  methods 
of  teaching,  culture,  discipline,  and  all  else  that  concerns 
the  great  work  in  which  they  are  to  engage,  but  to  pre- 
tend to  make  expert  teachers  and  disciplinarians  of  those 
who  by  Nature  are  deprived  of  that  aptness  for  teaching 
and  discipline  which  characterizes  all  successful  teachers, 
would  be  mere  quackery. 

This  aptness  or  special  fitness  to  teach  embraces  a 
number  of  professional  qualifications,  each  of  which  is 
more  or  less  important. 

1.  The  Teacher  should  be  Able  to  Manage  Well. — In- 
ability to  manage  a  school  is  in   most  cases  the  chief 


250  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

source  of  failure.  The  teacher  needs  a  thorough  know- 
ledge of  humau  nature.  He  nuist  be  ingenious,  wide 
awake,  energetic,  cool-headed,  and  have  the  skill  neces- 
sary to  adapt  means  to  ends.  He  must  be  a  constant 
student  of  child  mind  and  character.  He  should  ac- 
quaint himself  Avith  the  children's  whims  and  caprices. 
He  ought  to  examine  carefully  into  the  experience  of 
others,  and  wisely  shape  his  own  work  by  their  success 
or  failure.  He  should  also  study  carefully  the  principles 
of  management,  and  modify  them  in  his  own  practice  to 
suit  the  circumstances  of  each  particular  case. 

The  teacher  needs  tact.  Child-nature  is  but  human 
nature,  and  it  is  much  the  same  throughout  the  civilized 
world.  The  teacher  should  study  the  art  of  management 
thoroughly,  and  then  have  the  tact  necessary  to  adapt 
his  methods  to  the  control  of  every  case  that  may  arise. 
No  man  can  less  afford  to  enter  upon  his  work  without 
this  preliminary  training  than  can  the  teacher. 

2.  The  Teacher  should  Have  a  Full  Knowledge  of  his 
Work. — He  must  understand  fully  the  objects  of  edu- 
cation. He  must  understand  not  only  the  human  mind, 
but  also  how  to  give  it  proper  culture.  He  should  un- 
derstand the  capacities  of  the  mind,  and  have  definite 
ends  in  view  as  to  its  training.  He  must  understand 
that  the  child  is  not  a  mere  receiver  into  which  he  can 
pour  all  sorts  of  knowledge,  but  rather  that  it  is  a  being 
capable  of  almost  unlimited  culture,  and  that  his  mis- 
sion is  not  to  impart  knowledge  so  much  as  it  is  to  place 
the  child  in  such  a  favorable  position  as  will  enable  it  to 
gain  knowledge  by  its  own  efforts. 

3.  The  Teacher  should  be  Acquainted  with  the  Best 
Methods  of  Teaching. — It  is  a  grave  error  to  think  that 


THE    TEACHER.  251 

any  one  of  good  education  can  teach  well.  Teaching  is 
a  profession  in  itself.  Many  years  of  experience  have 
developed  new  and  valuable  methods  of  imparting  in- 
struction, and  the  most  successful  teacher  is  he  that 
keeps  pace  with  the  progress  of  his  profession  in  adoi)t- 
ing  as  his  own  what  he  finds  valuable  in  all  methods. 
The  approved  methods  of  the  present  represent  the 
thought,  culture,  and  experience  of  centuries.  The  pres- 
entation of  a  subject  to  the  minds  of  children  is  no 
longer  a  haphazard  proceeding,  but  it  is  governed  in- 
stead by  methods  which  have  been  fully  tested  and 
which  are  based  on  well-fixed  principles. 

In  addition  to  a  knowledge  of  these  methods  the 
teacher  must  have  skillful  practice.  The  beginner  can- 
not expect  to  succeed  as  does  the  one  who  has  been  prac- 
ticing correct  methods  for  a  series  of  years.  Practice 
and  experience  give  one  faith  and  confidence  in  his 
work.  It  is  only  continued  practice  tliat  brings  great 
skill. 

4.  Tlie  Teacher  should  Have  a  Thorougli  Knowledge  of 
Educational  Means. — He  should  understand  the  wants  of 
every  individual  child.  He  should  not  only  know  when 
to  punish,  but  also  what  punishment  to  inflict.  He 
should  know  not  only  what  branches  ought  to  be  taught 
to  the  child,  but  also  when  they  should  be  taught.  He 
should  know  not  only  in  what  order  the  mental  powers 
are  developed,  but  also  what  studies  are  best  suited  to 
aid  in  that  development.  Ho  should  know  not  only 
how  to  instruct,  but  also  how  to  train,  and  how  to  use 
the  means  in  his  power  to  accomplish  the  desired  end. 

5.  He  should  Have  the  Ability  to  Impart  Instruction  in 
an  Interesting  Manner. — The  interesting  teacher  is  always 


252  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

tlie  successful  teacher.  He  is  also  the  teacher  who  at- 
tracts pupils  to  liis  school,  and  keeps  them  there.  A 
child  that  is  interested  never  fails  to  love  school  and 
to  learn.  The  teacher,  too,  who  succeeds  in  interesting 
iiis  pupils  finds  little  to  do  in  the  matter  of  government 
or  management.  Indeed,  interested  pupils  find  little  time 
to  be  mischievous  or  disorderly.  An.  interesting  teacher 
is  therefore  usually  also  a  good  disciplinarian  as  well  as  a 
good  instructor. 

6.  The  Teacher  miist  be  a  Wise  Legislator. — It  will  fall 
to  his  lot  to  make  many  of  the  regulations  by  which  the 
school  shall  be  controlled.  These  regulations  should  be 
such  as  will  \vin  the  approbation  not  only  of  the  children, 
but  also  of  the  community.  It  will  often  be  found  to  be 
the  case  that  the  teacher  can  secure  the  assent  of  the  pu- 
pils in  the  adoption  of  such  regulations  as  may  be  judicious 
and  necessary.  Great  wisdom  is  needed  in  the  adoption 
of  rules,  that  they  be  such  only  as  are  found  necessary 
for  the  best  interests  of  the  school.  All  other  rules 
are  mischievous  and  calculated  to  do  more  harm  than 
good. 

7.  The  Teacher  should  be  an  Efficient  Executive. — He 
must  not  only  know  how  to  make  wise  rules,  but  also 
how  to  enforce  them  wisely  and  impartially.  The  teacher 
must  have  no  favorites  when  it  comes  to  enforcing  rules  or 
administering  discipline.  His  judgment  should  be  clear 
and  unbiased.  He  should  look  on  all  sides  of  an  oifeuse. 
He  should  clearly  understand  what  motive  prompted  the 
offender,  and  if  punishment  be  found  necessary  he  should 
administer  it  impartially.  Order  should  be  preserved, 
but  it  were  better  that  ninety-nine  guilty  should  escape 
rather  than  that  one  innocent  pupil  should  be  unwisely 


THE   TEACHER.  253 

or  unjuritly  punished.     The  teacher  ought  to  make  no 
mistakes  in  this  direction. 

The  teacher  must  be  eflSeient,  not  only  in  liscipline, 
but  also  in  the  entire  management  of  the  school.  Classes 
should  be  promptly  called  and  promptly  dismissed,  ques- 
tions should  be  put  promptly,  and  prompt  answers  should 
be  required  in  return.  All  the  school  work  should  be 
done  in  good  order  and  at  the  proper  lime.  The  teacher 
needs  to  be  wide  awake,  prompt,  and  self-possessed  at  all 
times.  A  school  under  the  guidance  of  an  efficient  execu- 
tive approaches  as  nearly  as  possible  to  self-government. 

8.  He  should  be  Interested  in  the  Advancement  of  Ms 
Profession. — Teachers  cannot  afford  to  ignore  the  pro- 
fession which  they  represent.  They  should  rather  be 
active  to  assist  in  building  it  up.  They  should  attend 
Teachers'  Institutes  and  Conventions,  and  assist  in  mak- 
ing them  practical  and  instructive.  They  should  watch 
carefully  the  progress  of  educational  events,  read  educa- 
tional journals,  and,  whenever  possible,  contribute  to  the 
columns  of  these  journals  anything  they  may  have  found 
of  value  in  their  own  experience.  They  should  contend 
for  the  rights  of  their  profession,  and  show  its  importance 
to  those  who  attempt  to  throw  ridicule  upon  it.  They 
should  advocate  professional  training  for  this  calling  as 
for  any  other,  but  not  at  the  expense  of  the  children,  as 
is  necessarily  the  case  where  a  young  teacher  enters  the 
school-room  without  training,  and  practices  on  the  pupils 
for  many  years  until  he  acquires  by  experience  what  he 
might  have  learned  in  a  year  or  two  by  tlie  careful  study 
of  educational  handbooks  or  received  by  training  and  in- 
struction at  a  well-conducted  Normal  Scliool. 

9.  The  Teacher  should  be  Progressive — He  nmst  be  a 


254  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

dose  stadoiit,  keeping  up  witli  the  times  not  only  in  his 
knowledge  of  current  history,  but  also  in  that  which  most 
closely  concerns  his  own  profession.  He  should  visit  the 
schools  of  other  teachers,  and  be  a  close  observer  of  their 
methods  of  instruction  and  management.  He  should  con- 
stantly strive  for  professional  improvement.  He  should 
not  rest  satisfied  with  knowing  that  he  is  esteemed  a  good 
teacher,  but  earnestly  strive  to  become  as  good  as  the  best. 
He  should  not  condemn  new  methods,  but  carefully  ex- 
amine them  and  weigh  their  merits,  and,  if  he  find  them 
good,  adopt  them,  unless  he  already  has  a  better. 

10.  The  Teacher  should  be  Liberal  in  his  Views. — He 
should  give  the  widest  latitude  to  the  thoughts  of  others. 
He  should  not  bind  himself  to  any  one  method,  and  in- 
sist upon  that  as  being  the  only  correct  method.  Rad- 
ical ism  in  education  is  fanaticism  of  the  narrowest  type. 
The  liberal-minded  teacher  never  rides  hobbies,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  sees  good  in  what  others  do  as  well  as  in 
what  he  himself  does.  The  liberal  teacher  does  not  con- 
demn new  methods  because  they  are  new,  nor,  on  the 
other  hand,  does  he  adopt  them  because  of  their  nov- 
elty. He'  considers  their  merits  and  demerits,  tests  them 
in  practice,  judges  of  their  results,  and  adopts  or  rejects  as 
he  deems  most  wise. 

4.  The  Teacher's  Moral  Qiialiiacatioiis. 

Among  the  chief  moral  qualifications  which  should 
characterize  the  good  teacher  are  the  following: 

1.  He  shoidd  be  a  Good  Man. — The  example  of  the 
teacher  is  powerful  in  moulding  the  character  of  the 
young.  The  teacher's  moral  character  and  his  conduct 
should  be.  entirely  above  reproach.      He  shouM   be  a 


THE   TEACHER.  255 

model  that  his  pupils  may  imitate  with  profit.  Not 
only  his  teachings,  but  also  his  conduct,  should  be  such 
as  to  win  the  approbation  of  the  community.  He  need 
not  be  sanctimonious  and  solemn — indeed,  he  should  not 
be,  for  such  traits  of  moral  character  are  repulsive  to  chil- 
dren— but  his  virtues  should  be  of  such  a  positive  nature 
as  to  guide  his  pujjils  aright  without  even  the  aid  of  moral 
teachings. 

2.  He  should  be  Impartial. — No  one  more  nearly  fills 
the  position  of  legislator  and  judge  in  one  than  does  the 
teacher.  He  not  only  makes  his  own  laws,  but  he  also 
expounds  and  executes  them.  Should  he  be  partial  in 
his  treatment  of  pupils  or  in  the  application  of  his  laws, 
the  injustice  will  be  detected  at  once  by  those  who  suffer. 
In  his  judgments  he  must  show  no  favoritism.  All  his 
pupils,  whether  rich  or  poor,  high  or  low,  bright  or  stupid, 
sliould  have  the  same  rights  and  privileges.  He  is  not, 
indeed,  called  upon  to  love  all  alike,  but  he  must  be  im- 
partial to  all,  unless  some  have  by  their  conduct  forfeited 
all  claims  to  respect;  but  even  in  such  cases  kind  and  im- 
partial treatment  will  frequently  reclaim  those  who  have 
been  given  up  as  lost, 

3.  He  should  be  Friendly  to  Children. — Friendship  is  a 
motive-power  which  influences  all  of  us,  and  leads  us  to 
do  our  work  better  than  we  \vould  in  its  absence.  We 
do  those  things  cheerfully  for  our  friends  which  other- 
wise we  would  leave  undone  or  do  only  under  a  pressing 
sense  of  duty.  This  rule  holds  also  with  children.  For 
those  who  have  a  kind  word  of  commendation  and  for 
those  whom  they  regard  as  their  friends  they  are  ever  ready 
to  be  obedient  and  obliging.  The  teacher  who  can  lead 
his  pupils  to  feel  that  he  is  their  friend,  and  that  every- 


256  SCHOOL    MAKAGEMEXT, 

thing  he  does  is  for  tlieir  ■welfare,  has  reduced  the  diffi- 
culties of  discipline  to  the  minimum.  But,  independent 
of  the  advantages  which  the  teacher  reaps  from  his 
being  friendly  to  children,  it  is  one  of  his  plain 
moral  duties  to  be  friendly  to  all  those  who  are  placed  in 
his  charge.  It  is  not  enough  that  he  treat  them  impar- 
tially ;  it  is  not  enough  that  he  be  a  good  man.  Many  a 
good  man,  so  far  as  worldly  judgment  goes,  is  strictly  im- 
partial and  just,  but  at  the  same  time  austere,  sullen,  mo- 
rose, and  inclined  to  weigh  in  the  balance  every  act  of 
childhood  strictly  according  to  justice,  without  showing 
any  disposition  to  be  either  merciful,  kind,  or  generous. 

The  teacher  whom  the  children  regard  as  their  friend 
wields  an  influence  in  moulding  character  whose  power 
can  scarcely  be  estimated.  It  was  this  which  in  a  great 
measure  gave  to  Dr.  Arnold  almost  unlimited  power  and 
influence  at  Rugby;  and  it  is  this  which  in  every  case, 
from  the  primary  school  to  the  university,  brings  to  the 
side  of  the  teacher  those  warm  advocates  and  adherents 
who  in  both  act  and  speech  are  ever  ready  to  do  battle 
for  his  good  name  and  the  work  on  which  his  reputation, 
is  based. 

4.  The  Teacher  should  Love  Children. — The  man  or  the 
woman  who  has  no  love  for  children,  no  sympathy  with 
childhood,  no  disposition  to  overlook  the  little  frailties 
which  have  characterized  children  ever  since  the  creation 
of  the  race,  ought  to  have  no  place  in  the  school-room. 
If  there  are  persons  who  are  totally  and  absolutely  unfit 
for  the  position  of  teacher,  they  are  the  men  who  have 
no  love  for  children,  and  no  disposition  to  overlook  and 
excuse  the  shortcomings  and  the  thoughtlessness  of  way- 
ward childish  impulses. 


THE    TEACHER.  257 

As  has  been  said  heretofore,  no  teacher  probably  will 
have  the  same  degree  of  affection  for  all  the  pupils  of 
his  school.  This  is  hardly  possible,  for  the  personal 
character  of  pupils  differs  greatly,  and  we  find  the  vary- 
ing shades  of  character  from  amiability  to  selfishness  so 
distinct,  and  some  faults  so  positive,  that,  in  the  nature 
of  things,  while  the  teacher  may  love  all,  there  are  some 
for  whom  his  affection  will  be  more  marked  than  for 
others.  And  yet  even  in  such  cases  his  love  may  prove 
all-powerful  in  guiding  and  directing  them  aright. 

5.  Tlie  Teacher  should  be  an  Agreeable  Compamon. — 
Few  teachers  wield  so  great  an  influence  over  their  school 
as  do  they  who  try  to  make  themselves  agreeable,  pleas- 
ant, and  social)le  with  their  pupils.  The  child  who 
feels  that  he  can  approach  his  teacher  and  have  a  social 
talk  M'ith  him,  or  now  and  then  relate  a  story  or  enjoy  a 
joke  in  his  presence,  is  ready  at  all  times  to  defend  that 
teacher,  and  he  will  at  the  same  time  hold  him  in  the 
very  highest  regard. 

This  pleasantness  of  manner  should  manifest  itself 
also  iu  the  recitation.  Of  course  the  object  of  the  reci- 
tation is  work,  but  if  that  work  can  be  done  in  an 
agreeable  and  i)leasant  manner  by  both  teacher  and 
pupils,  it  will  be  all  the  better.  If  the  teacher  can  occa- 
sionally relate  an  amusing  anecdote  which  will  serve  to 
create  interest  while  it  also  amuses,  let  him  do  so.  A 
good  laugh  in  class,  or  indeed  a  good  laugh  iu  \Yhich  the 
whole  school  may  join,  will  be  quite  as  beneficial  as  if 
the  time  were  employed  in  hard  study. 

The  teacher  ought  to  be  cheerful  at  all  times,  though 
he  should  never  be  undignified,  for  clownishness  does 
not  become  a  teacher.     Tn  the  recitation  he  should  be 


258  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

bright,  lively,  aud  sparkling,  and  at  recess  or  out  of 
school  he  should  have  a  cheerful  word  for  every  one  he 
meets.  He  should  let  the  pupils  feel  that  he  is  interested 
in  their  sports  and  that  he  enjoys  their  jjlays  with  them. 
Indeed,  if  his  discipline  be  such  that  his  pupils  thor- 
oughly respect  hira,  it  will  be  entirely  approj)riate  for 
him  to  join  in  their  plays,  and  thus  heigliten  the  chil- 
dren's enjoyment. 

Even  in  the  matter  of  refusing  requests,  the  teacher 
may  do  it  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupil  will  thoroughly 
respect  him  and  see  all  the  more  clearly  the  necessity  for 
the  refusal.  The  same  is  true  in  administering  punish- 
ment. If  the  pupil  see  that  the  teacher  administers 
punishment  reluctantly,  and  with  as  little  austerity  as 
possible,  he  will  respect  that  teacher  all  the  more  and  ac- 
knowledge the  justice  of  the  penalty.  But  if  the  teacher 
be  gruff,  and  show  by  his  manner  that  he  is  spiteful, 
vindictive,  and  revengeful,  the  pupil  at  once  loses  respect 
for  liim,  and  the  chief  ends  of  punishment  are  defeated. 

/f  It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  supj^ose  that  because  a 
teacher  calls  attention  to  a  fault  good-naturedly  the  pupil 
gives  no  heed  to  the  reproof.  Scolding  accomplishes  little 
at  any  time,  and  in  the  end  it  simply  makes  the  teacher 
ridiculous,  while  it  loses  all  possible  good  effect  on  the 
pupil.  It  is  a  common  subject  of  remark  with  reference 
to  a  cross  teacher,  "Oh,  you  must  get  used  to  his  scold- 
ing ;  it  does  not  mean  anything."  WJiat  shall  be  said, 
however,  of  discipline  which  pupils  seek  to  extenuate  in 
order  to  excuse  a  teacher's  weakness  of  character  ?  Good- 
natured  reproof,  on  the  other  hand,  is  much  the  more 
effective,  and  it  also  preserves  the  pupil's  respect  for  the 
discipline  and  personal   fitness  of  the  teacher. 


THE   TEACHER.  259 

6.  The  Teacher  should  be  Neat  in  Person. — "  Cleanliness 
is  next  to  godliness."  One  of  the  teacher's  physical 
qualifications  is  that  he  should  be  a  person  of  good  hy- 
gienic habits.  This  is  also  to  some  extent  a  moral  qual- 
ification. The  personal  habits  of  the  teacher  will  be 
copied  by  his  pupils,  and  this  is  true  not  only  of  his 
habits,  but  also  of  his  manner  of  dress.  Let  him  be 
untidy  and  slovenly,  and  his  pupils  will  follow  his  ex- 
ample. Let  him  be  careful  to  keep  his  desk,  his  person, 
and  his  clothing  clean  and  neat,  and  without  a  word  of 
instruction  one  after  another  the  pupils  will  acquire  tlie 
habit  of  neatness. 

His  influence  is  either  for  good  or  for  evil ;  and  this 
being  true,  it  is  not  only  expedient,  but  it  becomes  also 
a  positive  moral  duty,  for  him  to  set  such  an  example  in 
both  his  dress  and  his  manner  as  will  be  profitable  for  his 
pupils  to  imitate. 

7.  The  Teacher  should  be  Honest  and  Truthful. — It  seems 
hardly  necessary  to  argue  the  importance  of  this  moral 
qualification  of  teachers,  and  yet  so  many  are  untruthful 
and  dishonest  in  a  certain  sense  that  it  becomes  a  matter 
of  serious  import.  It  is  necessary  that  the  teacher  be 
honest  and  truthful — ■ 

1.  To  Himself. — He  has  no  right  to  overwork  himself 
and  destroy  his  health  in  his  enthusiasm  and  anxiety  to 
win  a  reputation  or  in  his  desire  to  succeed  and  make  a 
good  impression  on  the  community.  His  effort  to  do 
good  is  laudable,  but  the  claims  of  society  and  the  claims 
of  his  own  health  must  not  be  ignored. 

2.  To  His  Pupils. — Independent  of  the  culture  an<l 
instruction  which  the  teacher  owes  to  his  pupils,  it  is 
his  duty  to  be  truthful  and  candid  in  telling  them  their 


260  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

faults  when  such  a  course  becomes  necessary.  It  is  both 
wise  and  proper  that  be  encourage  them,  but  1  e  ought  not 
to  encourage  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  the  pupils  under 
the  impression  that  the  work  they  are  doing  is  good  and 
satisfactory  when  the  reverse  of  this  is  the  truth. 

He  must  be  honest  in  his  work  with  them,  doing  all  for 
them  that  it  is  their  right  to  expect.  He  must  be  truth- 
ful as  to  his  ability  also  in  the  matter  of  overcoming  dif- 
ficulties. He  has  no  right  to  answer  questions  at  random, 
and  then,  when  he  finds  himself  in  error,  attempt  to  con- 
ceal it  by  passing  on  hastily  to  something  else  or  by 
assuming  that  it  is  impertinent  for  his  pupils  to  doubt 
his  statements.  The  teacher  has  no  right  to  be  untruth- 
ful by  design,  and  when  he  finds  himself  wrong  uninten- 
tionally it  is  but  right  to  make  the  proper  correction  at 
once. 

3.  To  His  Patrons. — The  teacher  has  no  right  to  de- 
ceive his  patrons  by  telling  them  falsehoods  as  to  the 
progress  of  their  children.  It  is  much  easier  to  say  a 
good  word  of  every  child,  however  dull,  than  to  state 
the  exact  truth  to  the  parent.  But  the  i)areut  is  rarely 
deceived  by  a  false  statement.  No  one  knows  the  weak 
points  and  the  shortcomings  of  a  child  better  than  does 
the  parent.  A  false  statement  with  reference  to  a  child'?! 
progress,  therefore,  simj)ly  leads  the  patron  to  believe  the 
teacher  untruthful  and  dishonest. 

8.  The  Teacher  should  be  Modest. — Especially  should 
he  be  modest  with  reference  to  telling  of  what  he  has  ac- 
complished. If  he  be  a  progressive  and  energetic  teacher 
who  has  done  much  good  in  a  district,  there  will  always 
be  many  who  will  gladly  speak  words  of  praise  in  his 
favor.    Many,  of  course,  will  be  envious  and  seek  every 


THE   TEACHER.  261 

occasion  to  misrepresent  him  and  his  work.  So  long  as 
cynics  and  gossips  exist  we  must  expect  them  to  find 
fault,  but  it  is  not  the  good  opinion  of  these  that  the 
wise  teacher  seeks  to  win,  and  he  need  give  them  no 
attention.  Modesty  will  win  friends  for  him  among 
those  whose  friendship  is  worth  having,  where  a  spirit 
of  boastfulness  would  tend  to  estrange  and  disgust 
them. 

9.  The  Teacher  should  be  Industrious  and  Faithful. — 
This  is  a  requisite  of  success  in  every  calling.  The 
industrious  teacher  who  is  faithful  to  his  employers  and 
the  interests  of  his  school  need  have  little  fear  of  failure, 
unless,  indeed,  there  be  some  very  grave  defects  in  other 
essential  requisites  of  character.  Lazy  teachers  ought 
never  to  be  employed.  The  work  of  teaching  needs 
energy,  industry,  and  tact  such  as  is  not  found  in  a 
man  who  is  indolent.  In  addition  to  this,  the  exam- 
ple of  a  lazy  teacher  is  pernicious  in  making  the  pupils 
careless  and  idle. 

10.  The  Teacher  should  be  Conscientious. — This  requisite 
or  qualification  of  the  teacher  embraces  many  of  his  other 
moral  qualifications,  for  a  conscientious  man  wuU  under 
all  circumstances  strive  to  do  his  duty.  A  conscientious 
teacher  will  do  his  duty  not  only  to  his  pupils,  but  also 
to  the  patrons  and  school  officers  of  the  district.  He  will 
be  careful  also  to  see  that  the  school  property  is  well  pre- 
served. He  will  look  well  to  the  health  as  well  as  to  the 
progress  of  his  pupils — to  their  physical  and  their  moral 
welfare  as  well  as  to  their  intellectual  wants.  He  will 
see  to  it  that  the  governing  principle  which  rules  him- 
self as  well  as  the  school  is  the  desire  to  do  right  at  all 
times,  and  this  principle  will  guide  and  direct  him  in  all 


262  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

his  work  both  while  in  the  school-room  arc!  while  engaged 
in  cultivating  an  educational  sentiment  in  the  community. 

5.  Faults  to  be  Ayoided  by  Teachers. 

There  are  few  teachers  who  approximate  perfection  in 
tlie  matter  of  School  Management.  Even  the  best  often 
find  themselves  unconsciously  making  mistakes  which 
to  some  extent  interfere  with  their  progress  and  success. 
Many  of  these  mistakes  may,  with  proper  forethought 
and  caution,  be  avoided.  The  chief  of  them  are  named 
in  the  following  pages.  Young  teachers  particularly 
should  give  them  careful  consideration  and  avoid  them 
whenever  possible. 

1.  Hobby-Riding. — The  teacher  may  have  hobbies 
either  in  Management  or  in  Methods  of  Instruction. 
Both  are  alike  objectionable,  and  both  indicate  a  nar- 
rowness of  mind  which  ought  not  to  be  characteristic 
of  a  teacher.  Liberal-minded  men  are  not  given  to 
the  riding  of  hobbies. 

In  Government  the  hobby-rider  is  either  a  strict  advo- 
cate of  the  old-time  corporal  punishment,  to  be  adminis- 
tered in  such  a  way  as  will  cause  the  culprit  to  keep  it  in 
lively  remembrance,  or  he  is  an  advocate  of  moral  suasion, 
who  believes  that  under  no  circumstances  should  a  child 
ever  be  subjected  to  physical  punishment.  There  is  no 
middle  ground  for  the  hobby-rider;  he  must  gravitate 
from  one  extreme  to  the  other. 

In  MefJiods  the  hobby-rider  drifts  rapidly  from  one  to 
another,  being  an  advocate  of  each  in  turn.  First  he  ad- 
vocates no  oral  instruction,  and,  failing  here,  flies  imme- 
diately to  the  opposite  extreme,  and  insists  on  it  that 
neither  the  teacher  nor  the  pupil  shall  have  anything 


THE   TEACHER.  263 

to  do  with  textbooks.  At  one  time  he  devotes  the 
greater  part  of  his  attention  to  oral  spelling;  suddenly 
he  is  converted  to  a  new  method,  and  from  that  time 
forward  all  recitations  must  be  conducted  in  writing. 
For  a  while  his  hobby  is  oral  arithmetic,  and  he  re- 
gards the  great  object  of  it  as  being  the  ability  to  solve 
all  the  puzzling  questions  of  some  textbook  on  that 
branch ;  then  he  becomes  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  policy 
of  discarding  oral  arithmetic  entirely  and  solving  prob- 
lems by  the  v/ritten  process  alone.  For  a  while  his  hobby 
is  object  lessons,  then  it  is  oral  instruction,  then  language 
lessons,  then  the  spelling  reform ;  and  thus  from  one  to 
another,  never  stopping  long  enough  to  inquire  into  the 
merits  of  any  of  his  hobbies,  but  ever  deserting  the  old 
for  the  new. 

Teachers  should  have  no  hobbies ;  they  should  inquire 
narrowly  into  the  merits  of  all  methods,  and,  having 
wisely  made  their  choice,  steadily  adhere  to  it  until  con- 
vinced that  something  more  valuable  is  within  their 
reach. 

2.  Adhering  too  Closely  to  Textbooks. — Textbooks  are 
meant  to  be  an  aid  only,  and  the  teacher  should  not  in- 
sist that  the  words  of  any  book  be  memorized.  Herbert 
Spencer  says,  "  The  function  of  books  is  supplementary 
— a  means  of  seeing  through  other  men's  eyes  what  you 
cannot  see  for  yourself."  The  facts  and  the  principles 
are  the  important  things  to  know,  not  the  exact  words  in 
which  they  are  stated.  I  remember  distinctly  hearing  in 
my  boyhood  the  following  question  and  answer: 

Teacha\  Why  does  blowing  uj)on  hot  cofl'ee  make  it 
cooler  ? 

Pupil    Because  the  breath  is  cooler  than  the  coffee, 


2(84  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

and  the  temperature  of  the  two  tends  to  become 
equalized. 

But  tlie  teacher  was  not  satisfied  with  this  original 
and  correct  answer ;  it  was  not  the  answer  of  the  text- 
book ;  so  the  question  was  passed  to  the  next  pupil,  who 
informed  the  class  that  it  was  because  the  peculiar  shape 
of  the  mouth  in  blowing  made  the  breath  cooler.  The 
boy  who  gave  the  first  answer  lost  his  faith  in  that 
teacher,  and  he  had  but  little  respect  for  his  ability  ever 
after. 

Teacher,  if  a  pupil  give  you  a  correct  answer  in  his 
own  language,  acce])t  it  without  question,  though  it  be 
neither  so  elegant  nor  so  concisely  expressed  as  it  is  in 
the  textbook.  Show  your  pupils  how  to  get  the  sense, 
the  meaning,  out  of  the  printed  page.  They  can  read 
the  words  for  themselves,  but  sometimes  they  do  not 
know  how  to  use  the  textbook  to  the  best  advantage. 

3.  Teaching  Words  instead  of  Ideas.— This  is  one  of 
the  chief  errors  of  inexperienced  teachers.  Pupils 
should  understand  Avhat  they  attempt  to  learn.  The 
mere  memorizing  of  i^age  after  page  without  compre- 
hension trains  but  one  faculty  of  the  mind,  and  that  in 
a  way  and  to  an  extent  not  to  be  commended.  A  single 
idea  awakened  in  the  mind  of  the  child  by  a  skillful 
and  suggestive  teacher  is  worth  more  than  a  week's 
memorizing.  It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  arouse 
thought,  to  develop  mind,  to  put  the  child  in  such  a 
state  that  he  may  gain  knowledge  and  training  by  his 
own  effort,  and  not  to  crowd  the  mind  and  tax  the  mem- 
ory with  a  collection  of  meaningless  words. 

4.  Too  Mucli  Memorizing. — The  tendency  under  the 
older  forms  and  methods  of  education  was  to  train  the 


THE    TEACHER.  265 

memory  almost  wliolly  at  the  expense  and  to  the  neglect 
of  the  other  faculties.  This  was  to  some  extent  the  re- 
sult of  the  deficiency  of  books  and  printing.  Libraries 
were  scarce,  and  even  after  the  invention  of  printing  the 
price  of  books  was  so  high  that  only  the  wealthy  coulJ 
indulge  in  the  luxury  of  reading.  Newspaj^ers  had  not 
been  introduced.  As  a  consequence,  the  memory  was 
cultured  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  at  present,  and 
courses  of  study  were  arranged  accordingly.  In  later 
years  Ave  still  have  adhered  somewhat  to  the  old  methods, 
possibly  because  of  the  fact  that  the  memory  is  that 
power  by  which  we  are  best  able  to  make  a  disj)lay  of 
our  knowledge.  The  best  methods  of  culture  train  the 
mental  powers  symmetrically,  giving  the  memory  its 
due  share  of  training,  but  not  at  the  expense  of  the  ob- 
serving powers  or  any  of  the  other  mental  faculties. 

5.  Educational  Cramming. — The  enthusiastic  teacher  is 
anxious  usually  to  do  more  in  the  way  of  imparting 
knowledge  than  is  really  beneficial  to  the  child.  Some- 
times also  this  educational  cramming  is  the  result  of  a 
forced  preparation  for  examination.  Lessons  are  often 
too  long;  too  much  haste  is  made  to  finish  a  book;  too 
many  studies  are  undertaken  ;  and  often  certain  branches 
are  taught  at  too  early  an  age.  Sometimes  parents  urge 
upon  the  teacher  the  importance  of  spurring  on  the 
children.  The  teacher  is  assured  that  the  children  have 
plenty  of  spare  time  in  the  evening,  and  that  it  would 
be  better  if  they  had  more  study  to  engage  their  atten- 
tion at  that  time.  The  teacher  becomes  anxious,  and 
feels  that  he  ought  to  require  more  work  of  the  pupils, 
and  he  therefore  lengthens  the  lessons  or  adds  more 
studies  to  the  schedule;  and  the  final  result  is  a  super- 


266  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

ficial  knowledge  of  many  things,  and  no  thorough  know- 
ledge of  the  principles  of  any  study. 

Til  is  cramming  also  partakes  of  the  nature  of  useless 
facts  and  details  which  we  attempt  to  force  into  the  minds 
of  our  pupils.  As  a  result,  useful  knowledge  is  sacrificed, 
mental  training  is  ignored,  and  the  chief  ends  of  educa- 
tion are  defeated  in  our  effort  to  furnish  our  children 
with  knowledge  and  make  them  living  cyclopaedias. 

We  should  not  attempt  to  train  the  faculties  nor  im- 
part knowledge  more  rapidly  than  the  mental  growth 
and  development  of  the  learner  will  permit.  The 
growth  of  the  child's  mind  must  be  a  healthy  growth  if 
we  desire  to  have  the  mind  healthy  in  after  life. 

6.  Attempting  to  Teacli  Too  Much. — The  teacher  should 
not  attempt  to  teach  his  pupils  all  that  he  himself  knows. 
Much  must  be  left  untaught.  Pupils  learn  but  slowly. 
Their  minds  develoj)  in  accordance  with  fixed  laws,  and 
normal  growth  cannot  be  judiciously  hastened.  The 
teacher  must  therefore  not  hurry  them,  nor  be  discour- 
aged because  they  do  not  seem  to  progress  as  rapidly  as 
he  might  desire.  The  number  of  studies  for  all  grades, 
but  particularly  for  the  younger  pupils,  should  be  lim- 
ited to  a  few,  at  most  four  or  five- 
Many  things  which  to  the  teacher  seem  easy  are  to  the 
pupils  extremely  difficult.  The  teacher  should  therefore 
not  confuse  his  pupils  by  suggesting  various  ways  of 
overcoming  a  difficulty  until  he  first  sees  that  they  thor- 
oughly comprehend  a  single  one.  Many  a  pupil  has 
been  heartily  discouraged  because  his  teacher,  in  his  anx- 
iety to  help  the  pupil  out  of  difficulty,  has  simply  con- 
fused hini  by  attempting  to  teach  too  many  things  at 
once,  or  by  attempting  to  teach  too  many  ways  of  se- 


THE   TEACHER.  267 

curing  a  result  before  the  pupil  had  thoroughly  compre- 
hended any  one  way. 

7.  Striving  after  the  Impossible. — Nature  has  fixed  cer- 
tain limits  in  the  character  of  every  mind,  beyond  which 
it  is  useless  for  the  teacher  to  attempt  to  reach.  All  the 
liurry  and  worry  of  the  teacher  cannot  push  a  child  be- 
yond its  capacity.  There  will  always  be  dull  pupils 
whom  no  teacher  can  brighten,  there  will  always  be  slow 
ones  whose  development  no  teacher  can  hasten.  It  is  a 
waste  of  time  to  attempt  to  accomplish  what  is  impos- 
sible. The  bright  pupils,  the  prodigies,  are  the  excep- 
tion, but  the  teacher's  work  with  the  dull,  the  thought- 
less, and  the  careless  is  not  therefore  less  valuable  or  less 
productive  of  good  results. 

Quaint  old  Thomas  Fuller  gave  this  excellent  advice 
two  centuries  ago :  "  Wines,  the  stronger  they  be,  the 
more  lees  they  have  when  they  are  new.  Many  boys  are 
muddy-headed  till  they  be  clarified  with  age;  and  such 
afterward  proved  the  best.  Bristol  diamonds  are  both 
bright  and  square  and  pointed  by  Nature,  and  yet  are 
soft  and  worthless;  whereas  Orient  ones  in  India  are 
rough  and  rugged  naturally.  Hard,  rugged,  and  dull 
natures  in  youth  acquit  themselves  afterward  the  jewels 
of  the  country ;  and  therefore  their  dullness  at  first  is  to 
be  borne  with,  if  they  be  diligent.  The  schoolmaster  de- 
serves to  be  beaten  himself  who  beats  Nature  in  a  boy 
for  a  fault.  And  I  question  whether  all  the  whipping 
in  the  world  can  make  their  parts  who  are  naturally 
sluggish  rise  one  minute  before  the  hour  Nature  hath 
appointed.  All  the  whetting  in  the  world  can  never  set 
a  razor's  edge  on  that  wiiich  hath  no  steel  in  it." 

8.  Suppressing  Originality  and  Individuality. — One  of 


268  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

the.  greatest  errors  in  teaching  is  that  of  trying  to  cast 
all  in  the  same  moukl.  Over-systematic  teachers  make 
the  mistake  of  insisting  that  all  the  members  of  a  class 
must  be  proficient  in  every  branch  they  attempt  to  study. 
The  student  should  never  be  judged  by  his  ability  in  all 
branches,  but  rather  on  his  average  ability.  There  are 
those  to  whom  mathematics  will  always  be  distasteful, 
and  whose  knowledge  in  that  science  must  ever  be 
largely  a  matter  of  memory.  There  are  others,  again, 
who  have  a  great  capacity  for  mathematics,  but  whose 
talents  for  language  and  natural  science  are  but  medi- 
ocre. To  suppress  these  individual  tastes,  to  attempt  to 
mould  anew  these  minds,  to  try  to  bring  them  to  an  ar- 
tificial and  arbitrary  standard  or  course  of  study,  and 
insist  that  each  shall  be  jiroficient  in  all,  and  that  indi- 
vidual preference  and  individual  talent  shall  not  be 
permitted  to  assert  themselves,  is  to  destroy  individu- 
ality itself. 

Under  our  present  school  system  of  course  all  the 
teacher  can  attempt  to  do  is  to  give  general  instruction. 
It  is  not  his  business,  nor  is  it  the  business  of  the  public 
school,  to  make  specialists.  Special  training  is  the  work 
of  the  technical  schools.  But,  while  his  efforts  should  be 
directed  wholly  in  the  line  of  giving  this  general  know- 
ledge and  this  general  culture  which  our  school  system 
contemplates,  the  originality  which  a  child  displays 
should  not  be  discouraged,  nor  should  the  individuality 
which  distinguishes  each  one  from  every  other  be  sup- 
pressed. It  is,  in  reality,  the  men  of  original  genius 
and  striking  personality  that  rise  to  distinction  and  be- 
come our  leaders.  The  great  work  of  the  teacher  con- 
sists in  leading,  developing,  and  wisely  directing  genius, 


THE   TEACHER.  269 

rather  thim  in  curbing  and  suppressing  the  efforts  of  in- 
dividual talent. 

9.  Making  the  Chief  Work  of  School  the  Masteiy  of 
Textbooks. — Textbooks  are  valuable  in  presenting  the 
salient  points  of  a  study,  in  systematizing  the  work  of 
teacliing,  and  in  directing  the  learner  to  the  proper 
method  of  developing  the  branches  of  Avhich  they 
treat;  but  the  teacher  must  not  make  the  mistake  of 
supposing  that  when  the  textbook  is  mastered  by  his 
pupils  they  are  proficient  in  the  branch  of  which  it 
treats.  The  mastery  of  textbooks  is  not  the  object  of 
school  work,  and  yet  there  are  [)r()bably  few  of  us  who 
were  not  taught  in  our  school-days  to  believe  that  the 
great  aim  was  to  finish  the  books  and  be  able  to  pass  a 
creditable  examination.  Indeed,  the  same  fault  exists  to- 
day in  all  except  the  very  best  schools.  Discipline,  train- 
ing;, and  all  other  ends  of  studv  are  fory-otten  in  the  effort 
to  solve  problems,  demonstrate  propositions,  commit  defi- 
nitions, and  acquire  a  fluent  use  of  textbook  language. 

Many  a  boy  considers  his  school  work  finished  the  day 
he  closes  the  book  with  the  feeling  that  he  has  mastered 
its  contents.  Very  many  have  discovered  their  mistake 
too  late  in  life,  when  they  have  come  to  apply  their 
powers  to  the  actual  work  of  the  world,  and  have  found 
their  textbook  knowledge  and  textbook  ability  of  use  only 
in  the  school-room  and  in  the  study  of  special  books.  Un- 
der no  circumstances  should  they  be  allowed  to  imbibe 
the  notion  that  the  knowledge  of  any  one  book  is  all 
that  they  ought  to  possess.  They  should  be  made  to  feel 
instead  that  a  knowledge  of  principles  is  the  great  req- 
uisite, and  such  a  knowledge  of  principles  as  will  enable 
them  to  make  the  proper  application  in  actual  work. 


270  SCHOOL   MA^■AGEME^■T. 

10.  Being  Servile  Imitators. — Tliis  fault  arises  largely 
from  the  lack  of  preparation  for  the  work  of  teaching. 
Young  men  and  women  without  the  professional  training 
necessary  to  engage  in  the  work  of  teaching  are  likely  to 
take  it  for  granted  that  the  ways  of  their  own  teachers 
are  best,  and  they  therefore  imitate,  and  too  often  with- 
oul  the  necessary  tact  to  adapt  their  methods  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  case. 

It  is  a  fault  particularly  liable  to  characterize  the 
High-School  graduate,  where  no  normal  or  training 
«*lass  exists,  or  Avhere  no  educational  works  are  read  and 
studied.  It  is  also  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  failure, 
because  High-School  methods  of  both  management  and 
instruction  differ  widely  from  the  methods  to  be  em- 
ployed in  the  Primary  School,  where  the  young  and 
inexperienced  teachers,  unfortunately,  are  usually  em- 
ployed. 

The  chief  means  of  avoiding  this  error  lies  in  the 
preparation  which  every  one  ought  to  make  before  en- 
tering upon  the  work  of  teaching.  Not  only  a  course 
of  professional  study  is  advisable,  but  also  close  observa- 
tion of  the  work  of  many  successful  teachers  and  con- 
siderable preliminary  practice  umler  the  eye  of  an  expert. 
Our  elementary  schools  ought  not  to  be  practice  and  ex- 
perimental schools  merely,  in  which  the  non-professional 
teachei  may  gain  experience,  learn  methods,  and  earn  a 
living  at  the  same  time. 

The  patience  of  our  American  people  is  great,  and  no- 
«vhcre  is  it  more  pointedly  exemplified  than  in  the  con- 
stant employment  of  an  army  of  raw  recruits  who  enter 
our  schools,  many  of  them  Leing  persons  who  are  abso- 
hitely  iimocent  oi^  any  knowledge  of  the  first  principles 


THE    TEACHER.  271 

on  wliich  the  science  of  teacliing  is  based.  To  tlie  cm- 
j)loynicnt  of  these  undisciplined  and  non- professionally 
educated  persons  is  due  in  a  great  degree  also  the  low 
salaries  of  wliich  teachers  themselves  compUiin  so  bit- 
terly. The  only  remedy  for  both  evils  is  the  careful 
preparation  of  teachers  for  their  work  before  they  take 
up  the  profession. 

11.  Adhering  to  Old  Methods. — Old  methods  that  are 
good  and  which  aid  correct  mental  development  should 
not  be  given  up;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  those  wliich 
have  proven  non-condu(!ive  to  the  requirements  of  men- 
tal trrowth  outi;ht  to  be  discarded.  The  adherence  to  old 
methods  is  not  so  often  conservatism  as  it  is  stubborn- 
ness and  the  result  of  ignorance.  The  teacher  who  holds 
to  a  metliod  because  he  knows  of  no  better  is  of  course 
right  so  far  as  his  knowledge  goes,  but  he  is  not  fit  to  be 
a  teacher  if  he  is  non-progressive  or  makes  no  attempts 
to  learn  a  better  way. 

Swett,  in  his  Methods  of  Teaching,  gives  this  admirable 
l)icture  of  one  who  adheres  strictly  to  old  methods  :  "  In 
arithmetic  he  begins  \vith  definitions,  continues  in  ab- 
stractions and  mechanical  rules,  and  ends  in  puzzling 
problems.  In  grammar  he  omits  the  actual  use  of  lan- 
guage in  expressing  thought,  and  devotes  his  attention 
to  the  technicalities  of  parsing  and  analysis.  In  geog- 
raphy he  is  content  to  have  his  pu})ils  memorize  regard- 
less of  ideas.  In  history  he  strings  dates  like  wooden 
beads  upon  the  thread  of  memory.  In  reading  he 
trains  pupils  to  call  words  without  much  reference  to 
meaning.  In  botany  he  takes  books  before  flowers,  and 
in  physics  omits  experiments.  Object-lessons  he  regards 
with  disdain.     In  fact,  he  does  not  educate  at  all;  that 


272  scuooL  MAXA(;i:Mt:NT. 

is,  he  (Iocs  not  awaken  ciii'Iosity  uov  excite  inquiry  nor 
develop  discrimination." 

12.  Believing  that  Persons  can  Teach  Well  without 
Preparation. — There  are  still  many  outside  of  the  teaeii- 
ers'  ranks,  and  not  a  few  within,  who  think  it  possible 
for  any  one  to  teach  well  without  special  preparation. 
Of  those  engaged  in  teaching  wiio  believe  this  to  be 
true  there  are  very  few,  indeed,  who  arc  successful  teach- 
ers in  the  true  sense.  They  n)ay  set  tasks  and  see  them 
performed,  they  may  assign  lessons  and  hear  them  re- 
cited, but  they  do  not  teach  except  in  an  irregular  way; 
neither  do  they  secure  that  harmonious  development  of 
the  child-mind  which  is  a  part  of  the  work  of  every 
teacher. 

Carlyle  paints  their  picture  graphically  in  the  follow- 
ing words  :  "  jNIy  teachers  were  hide-bound  pedants,  with- 
out knowledge  of  man's  nature,  or  of  boys,  or  of  aught 
save  lexicons.  Innumerable  dead  vocables  they  crammed 
into  us,  and  called  it  fostering  the  growth  of  the  mind. 
How  can  an  inanimate  mechanical  verb-grinder  foster  the 
growth  of  anything,  much  more  of  mind,  which  grows, 
not  like  a  vegetable  by  having  its  roots  littered  by  ety- 
mological compost,  but,  like  a  spirit,  by  mysterious  con- 
tact with  spirit-thought  kindling  itself  at  the  fire  of 
living  thought?  How  shall  he  give  kindling  in  whose 
own  inward  man  there  is  no  live  coal  but  is  burned  out 
to  a  dead  grammatical  cinder?  My  professors  knew 
syntax  enough,  and  of  the  human  soul  this  much — that 
it  had  a  faculty  called  memory,  and  could  be  acted  on 
through  the  muscular  integument  by  the  appliance  of 
birch-rods." 

Many   men   and   women,  after  constant  practice  and 


THE   TEACHER.  273 

without  previous  preparation,  learn  to  teach,  some  of 
them  well,  some  passably,  and  some  otherwise ;  but  who 
shall  reckon  the  fearful  cost  of  all  this  preliminary 
work  ?  Who  shall  be  able  to  count  up  the  failures  and 
the  schools  spoiled  ?  '  Who  shall  be  able  to  estimate  the 
damage  done  to  both  mind  and  morals  of  the  young 
who  are  the  innocent  victims  of  an  apprenticeship  of 
this  kind? 

13.  Being  Non-Progressive. — No  teacher  ought  to  be 
willing  to  fall  behind  his  a.ssociates.  But  in  educational 
matters  he  must  go  either  backward  or  forward ;  there 
can  be  no  standing  still.  Too  many  teachers,  when  they 
have  once  secured  a  diploma  or  a  life-certificate,  are  sat- 
isfied to  make  no  further  progress.  This  should  not  be 
the  case.  They  ought  continually  to  grow  better.  They 
ought  to  be  close  observers  of  the  methods  of  others. 
They  ought  to  be  thinkers.  They  ought  to  pursue  a 
course  of  educational  reading.  They  ought  to  keep 
themselves  well  versed  in  the  improvements  in  text- 
books. If  they  feel  that  they  can  learn  nothing  at 
Teachers'  Associations,  they  ought  at  least  to  be  willing 
to  do  good  to  others  by  giving  advice,  by  pointing  out 
errors,  and  by  encouraging  the  inexperienced.  The 
teacher's  calling  ought  to  be  progressive,  and  it  should 
be  a  source  of  pride,  particularly  to  every  professional 
teacher,  to  promote  its  interests  wherever  possible. 

14.  Overwork. — The  teacher's  first  duty  is  to  take  care 
of  his  health.  Without  good  health  he  can  have  little 
success  in  teaching;  but,  independent  of  this,  he  is  not 
called  upon  to  sacrifice  his  health  in  order  to  do  good 
work  for  his  pupils.  There  is  no  adequate  reason  why 
a  teacher  may  not  so  arrange  his  work  as  to  do  full  jus- 
is 


274  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

tice  to  his  pupils,  and  yet  have  plenty  of  time  for  exer- 
cise and  social  recreation.  Sooner  or  later,  every  one 
must  pay  the  penalty  for  infringing  Nature's  laws  in 
doing  more  work,  either  physical  or  mental,  than  i.« 
compatible  with  the  welfare  of  the  human  consti- 
tution. 

When  the  teacher  leaves  the  school-room  he  should 
leave  his  school  cares  and  anxieties  behind,  and  feel  that 
he  is  free  to  engage  in  such  recreation  as  is  most  pleas- 
ing or  most  beneficial.  "When  vacation  comes  let  hira 
go  to  the  woods  or  the  mountains  or  the  seashore,  which- 
ever is  most  congenial  to  his  tastes  or  whichever  he  feels 
that  he  can  best  afford,  and  here  let  him  throw  aside  all 
cares  and  enjoy  Nature  to  the  utmost. 

15.  Striving  to  Please  Everybody. — However  well  the 
teacher  may  do  his  work,  he  will  find  many  critics  who 
feel  called  upon  to  make  unpleasant  criticism  and  find 
fault.  Let  him  not  be  discouraged  at  this.  No  one  has 
always  escaped  criticism.  Were  one's  school  absolutely 
perfect,  he  would  still  find  some  whose  envy  would  in- 
cite them  to  make  malicious  remarks  with  regard  to  his 
success.  Indeed,  the  more  successful  a  teacher  is  in 
building  up  a  school,  and  the  more  nearly  he  brings  it 
to  perfection,  the  greater  will  be  the  envy  of  his  com- 
petitors, and  the  more  energetic  they  will  be  in  their 
efforts  to  say  unkind  and  untruthful  things  of  him  and 
his  work.  It  ought  not  so  to  be,  but  human  nature  is 
both  vain  and  weak. 

Let  the  teacher  feel  that  he  is  doing  his  duty  to  him- 
self and  his  patrons,  that  he  is  doing  the  best  he  can 
with  the  material  and  the  opportunities  at  command, 
and  he  does  well.     He  should  not  sacrifice  the  pupils  in 


THE   TEACHEE.  275 

his  charge  in  order  that  his  school  may  enjoy  a  brilliant 
record  and  thus  be  the  pride  of  the  community.  Popu- 
lar opinion  is  desirable,  and  the  good  opinion  of  all  is 
not  to  be  lightly  regarded,  but  if  this  good  opiniou  must 
be  secured  as  the  result  of  injury  to  either  pupils  or 
teacher,  the  price  to  be  paid  is  too  high. 

16.  Neglecting  the  Practical. — The  teacher  should  not 
confine  his  instruction  to  the  actual  school  studies.  The 
student  that  leaves  school  knowing  only  what  concerns 
his  textbook  studies  knows  comparatively  little.  The 
teacher  has  many  opportunities  for  imparting  valuable 
practical  knowledge,  which  ought  not  to  pass  without 
an  effort  to  improve  them.  Many  valuable  hints  may  be 
given  to  the  girls,  and  even  to  the  boys,  on  the  subject  of 
domestic  economy.  Many  homes  are  unhomelike  be- 
cause of  the  ignorance  of  those  who  preside  over  them. 
The  good  managers  of  homes  are  probably  the  exception, 
but  the  condition  of  things  might  be  much  improved  if 
teachers  were  careful  to  make  suggestions  to  their  pupils 
on  topics  of  this  kind.  Let  the  teacher  read  extensively 
on  the  subject  of  domestic  economy,  and  then  give  short 
talks  every  week  on  the  most  important  parts  of  the 
study.  If  such  practice  among  teachers  were  to  become 
general,  we  should  have  a  most  powerful  lever  in  ele- 
vating the  condition  of  the  homes  in  our  land. 

The  teacher  should  also  make  his  instruction  practical 
as  concerns  the  work  of  the  boys.  Let  him  instill  into 
their  minds  a  respect  for  labor  by  showing  that  all  of  us 
labor  in  our  respective  spheres ;  that  labor  is  not  only 
beneficial,  but  also  necessary ;  and  that  were  labor  to 
cease  the  world  would  stagnate  and  become  wholly  de- 
moralized    He  should  show  that  labor  is  not  degrading, 


276  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

but  instead  that  it  is  elevating,  and  that  it  is  in  reality  a 
blessing.  The  judicious  teacher  can  do  much  in  cor- 
recting the  Avrong  notions  of  boys  in  this  respect,  and  in 
leading  them  to  look  on  education  as  something  more 
than  mere  textbook  drudgery. 

17.  Having  too  Many  Classes. — This  is  an  error  which 
is  likely  to  exist  mostly  in  the  ungraded  school,  and  it 
is  one  difficult  to  avoid  where  the  school  is  overcrowded. 
In  a  school  of  ordinary  size,  however,  the  true  economy 
is  to  have  as  few  classes  as  possible.  Age,  capacity,  and 
size  of  classes  ought  all  to  be  considered  in  making  the 
permanent  classification  of  the  school.  If  the  school  is 
too  large,  then  it  will  be  best  to  alternate  the  recitations 
of  some  of  the  classes,  hearing  them  recite  only  every 
other  day.  When  the  class  has  no  recitation  for  the 
day,  let  them  still  have  their  period  of  study,  and  let 
them  prepare  their  work  on  slates  or  on  the  blackboard, 
or  even  write  it  out  on  paper  for  the  teacher's  inspection. 
Recitations,  however,  should  be  so  arranged  that  every 
one  may  have  something  to  do  each  day ;  otherwise  the 
pupils  will  soon  lose  interest  and  the  work  of  the  teacher 
will  be  fruitless. 

18.  Having  too  Many  Rules  and  Regulations. — The 
teacher  should  not  go  into  the  school-room  with  a  list  of 
rules  and  regulations  prepared.  Let  rules  be  adopted 
only  when  the  necessity  for  them  arises.  The  wise  plan 
is  for  the  teacher  to  say  nothing  about  rules  until  the 
behavior  of  the  pupils  makes  it  necessary  to  put  some  in 
force,  and  then  the  plan  heretofore  suggested  should  be 
used  in  their  adoption.  The  fewer  the  rules  the  less 
difficult  will  be  the  work  of  government,  because  the 
fewer  will  be  the  violations. 


a  HE    TEACHER.  277 

The  great  work  of  the  teacher  ought  to  be  teaching, 
not  keeping  an  orderly  school.  Pupils  ought  to  be  -well- 
behaved,  and  restrictions  and  rules  ought  to  be  for  the 
check  of  those  only  who  are  not  inclined  to  do  right. 
It  ought  not  to  be  expected  of  the  teacher  that  he  spend 
any  great  part  of  his  time  in  keeping  order.  Imagine 
the  new  minister  of  a  parish,  when  he  takes  charge  of  a 
congregation,  first  laying  down  a  set  of  rules  with  re- 
gard to  whispering,  laughing,  shufHing  of  feet,  leaving 
seats,  etc.  during  sermon,  and  then  imagine  him,  while 
delivering  that  sermon,  stopping  occasionally  to  preserve 
order.  It  would  be  something  unprecedented,  and  yet, 
barring  the  thoughtlessness  of  children,  there  ought  to 
be  no  more  reason  for  adopting  rules  in  the  one  case 
than  there  ought  in  the  other. 

19.  Giving  too  Little  Attention  to  Manners  and  Morals. 
— The  teacher  himself  ought  to  be  a  person  whose  man- 
ners and  personal  character  are  worthy  of  imitation  by 
his  pupils ;  but,  independent  of  this,  he  ought  to  give 
frequent  instruction  in  an  informal  way  on  the  subject 
of  good  manners  and  correct  morals.  Much  may  be 
done  by  reading  anecdotes  to  the  children — much  also  by 
reading  to  them  such  stories  as  are  found  in  Cowderry's 
Moral  Lessons,  each  of  which  illustrates  some  positive 
moral  virtue  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  interesting  and 
easily  comprehended  by  children.  Excellent  advice  may 
also  be  gathered  from  Gow's  Good  Morals  and  Gentle 
Manners,  a  practical  book  on  the  etiquette  of  every-day 
life  which  all  pupils  can  appreciate.  The  teacher  should 
frequently  read  or  relate  stories  illustrating  both  morals 
and  manners.  The  pupils  will  draw  their  own  conclu- 
sions, and  in  every  instance  some  one  will  be  touched 


278  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

and  a  good  effect  be  wrought.  Bain  says,  "  A  moral 
lesson  may  be  wrapped  up  in  a  tale  and  brought  home 
with  an  impetus.  Stories  of  great  and  noble  deeds  have 
fired  more  youthful  hearts  with  enthusiasm  than  ser- 
mons have." 

An  excellent  plan  is  for  the  teacher  to  keep  a  scrap- 
book,  into  which  he  should  gather  from  time  to  time 
such  suitable  anecdotes  and  stories  as  he  may  meet  with 
in  his  reading.  They  will  always  be  found  a  convenient 
medium  by  which  to  convey  practical  instruction  in  both 
morals  and  manners.  He  should  give  advice  also,  as 
opportunity  may  occur,  in  the  choice  of  reading  matter, 
selecting  at  all  times  interesting  and  healthful  books. 
He  ought  under  no  circumstances,  however,  to  mention 
offensive  books  and  caution  pupils  against  reading  them. 
Next  to  advertising  by  praise,  nothing  is  more  effective 
than  advertising  by  condemnation.  Let  pupils  be  cau- 
tioned against  reading  certain  books  as  demoralizing  in 
their  character,  and  there  will  always  be  a  large  percent- 
age who  will  search  out  the  condemned  books  and  read 
them  for  the  mere  gratification  of  curiosity. 

20.  Giving  too  Little  Attention  to  Physical  Culture. — 
With  most  pupils  but  little  difficulty  will  be  experienced 
in  the  matter  of  exercise.  Nature  has  implanted  in  the 
human  constitution  that  same  desire  to  play  which  is 
characteristic  of  the  young  of  all  animal  kind.  But 
children  in  school  will  gradually  fall  into  habits  which 
may  prove  quite  as  harmful  as  the  neglect  of  exercise, 
and  to  these  the  teacher  must  give  strict  attention.  They 
include  improper  and  ungraceful  postures  in  both  sitting 
and  standing,  reading  and  studying  with  deficient  or  too 
strong  light,  sitting  in  an  uncomfortable  roon,  studying 


THE   TEACHER.  279 

80  intensely  as  lo  cause  headache,  eating  at  irregular 
times,  lunching  between  meals,  going  out  of  doors  with- 
out sufficient  protection ;  and  in  fact  all  that  may  be  em- 
braced under  the  head  of  violations  of  hygienic  laws. 

It  is  vastly  better  that  pupils  should  have  correct 
liygieuic  habits  and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  their  own 
physical  being  than  that  they  should  have  a  knowledge 
of  all  the  other  sciences  of  a  school  course.  Horace 
Mann,  one  of  America's  greatest  educators,  says:  "At 
college  I  w^as  taught  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
as  if  their  keeping  in  their  orbits  depended  on  my 
knowing  them,  while  I  was  in  profound  ignorance  of 
the  laws  of  health  of  my  own  body.  The  rest  of  my 
life  was  in  consequence  one  long  battle  of  exhausted 
energies."  This,  too,  would  be  the  testimony  of  most 
great  scholars — not  that  mental  discipline  and  hard  study 
do  harm-,  but  that  the  neglect  of  physical  culture,  and 
the  training  of  the  mind  at  the  expense  of  health,  are 
injurious  in  the  extreme. 

21.  Giving  too  Mucli  Help. — The  mind,  like  the  body, 
grows  stronger  by  exercise,  and  the  best  and  most 
profitable  exercise  is  that  which  the  child  gets  from  his 
own  work.  The  teacher  does  the  child  a  great  wrong  in 
doing  his  work  for  him.  The  more  a  pupil  does  for 
himself,  the  greater  will  be  his  self-dependence  and  the 
more  thorough  his  mental  discipline.  As  well  might  we 
expect  a  child  to  grow  physically  strong  if  continually 
carried  in  the  nurse's  arms,  as  expect  him  to  grow 
mentally  strong  while  receiving  the  constant  help  of 
the  teacher.  It  is  what  the  child  does  for  himself 
that  strengthens  his  mental  faculties  and  fits  him  for 
his  subsequent  work. 


280  SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT. 

The  pupil  should  not  be  permitted,  however,  to  waste 
time  in  wrestling  with  difficulties  beyond  his  strength. 
He  should  have  no  direct  help  in  doing  that  which  he 
can  do  for  himself,  but  it  is  useless  and  unprofitable  to 
permit  him  to  waste  time  in  attempting  to  solve  prob- 
lems beyond  his  comprehension.  When  the  teacher  once 
discovers  that  the  child  is  unable  to  overcome  a  difficulty, 
it  is  then  time  for  him  to  give  such  suggestions  as  will 
start  a  proper  train  of  thought  in  the  mind  of  the  child, 
and  thus  enable  him  to  win  the  victory. 

22.  Assuming  that  Parents  and  Directors  are  the  Teach- 
er's Enemies. — It  is  a  great  mistake  for  teachers  to  as- 
sume that  both  the  patrons  and  the  Directors  are  their 
natural  enemies ;  and  this  mistake  has  caused  in  many 
schools  a  great  degree  of  difficulty  which  might  have 
been  avoided  to  the  advantage  of  both  teacher  and 
pupils.  When  once  fully  convinced  that  the  teacher 
is  working  for  the  best  interests  of  the  school,  no  one 
naturally  feels  a  greater  desire  to  promote  the  success 
and  progress  of  the  pupils  than  does  the  parent.  Wh}' 
should  he  be  an  enemy  ?  Certainly  it  is  to  his  advan- 
tage that  his  own  children  make  proper  progress  in 
their  studies,  and  that  he  give  the  teacher  such  en- 
couragement as  will  lead  him  to  work  honestly  and 
faithfully  for  the  best  development  of  the  children 
under  his  control. 

But  should  the  teacher  know  that  both  patrons  and 
Directors  are  unfavorable  to  him  at  first,  he  should  not 
for  a  moment  show  that  he  believes  such  to  be  the  fact. 
Every  effi^rt  should  be  made  to  win  them  over — first,  by 
his  good  work  in  the  school ;  and,  second,  by  his  being 
genial,   pleasant,   polite,  and   sociable   when   he   meets 


THE    TEACHER.  281 

them.      If  he    manifests    this    kind    of   spirit   toward 
them,  he  need  have  little  fear  of  the  final  result. 

23.  The  too  Rapid  Introduction  of  Reforms. — It  is  never 
wise  to  attempt  sudden  changes  or  reforms  on  taking 
charge  of  a  school.  A  teacher  may  find  many  things  in 
his  own  work  or  in  that  of  his  predecessor  which  he 
thinks  ought  to  be  otherwise,  but  he  should  proceed  very 
cautiously  if  a  cliange  is  to  be  made.  If  improved 
methods  are  desirable,  let  him  first  convince  those  whom 
these  methods  most  concern  as  to  their  value  and  im- 
portance. If  he  once  secures  their  assistance  and  co- 
operation, the  reform  can  readily  be  made;  but  if  he 
must  make  it  against  their  opposition,  it  is  better  for 
him  to  endure  the  evils  which  already  exist  than  in- 
vite those  whose  magnitude  he  may  find  still  greater. 

24.  Casting  Reflections  on  One's  Predecessor.  —  The 
teacher  should  be  cautious  not  to  make  unfriendly  re- 
marks with  reference  to  his  predecessor,  nor  should  he 
by  either  word  or  manner  encourage  his  pupils  to  in- 
dulge in  such  remarks.  His  predecessor  may  have 
made  very  serious  mistakes,  but  the  wiser  plan  will 
be  for  the  teacher  to  show  these  by  the  excellence  of 
his  own  work  rather  than,  by  calling  attention  to 
them. 

A  very  serious  fault  of  this  same  nature  is  that  of  a 
teacher's  showing  his  lack  of  confidence  in  the  work  of 
his  predecessor  by  turning  all  back  to  the  beginning  of 
the  book.  The  custom  is  still  a  very  general  one  in 
most  ungraded  schools.  It  would  be  much  better  to 
start  where  their  previous  teacher  ended  his  instruction, 
or  at  most  turn  back  a  few  pages  only,  so  that  they  may 
Qot  be  discouraged.     If  their  teaching  has  been  defective 

24  » 


282  SCHOOL,   MANAGEMENT. 

it  will  soon  become  manifest,  and  both  teacrier  and  pupils 
can  then  agree  upon  a  plan  which  will  make  the  instruc- 
tion more  effective. 

25.  Making  Excuses  to  Visitors. — This  sort  of  com- 
plaint is  usually  made  with  the  design  of  impressing 
upon  the  minds  of  visitors  that  the  teacher  could  do 
very  much  better  work  if  he  only  had  a  chance — that 
is,  if  the  Directors  were  better  educated  and  could  appre- 
ciate good  teaching,  if  the  parents  were  not  so  ignorant 
and  prejudiced,  if  the  school-house  were  more  desirably 
located,  if  the  teacher  had  a  better  supply  of  apparatus, 
if  the  preceding  teacher  had  not  spoiled  the  school,  if  the 
pupils  were  not  so  stupid,  and  so  on. 

A  teacher  of  this  kind  never  looks  at  his  own  work 
for  the  cause  of  failure.  He  would  not  for  a  moment 
admit  that  it  is  his  own  deficiency  that  he  is  trying  to 
excuse  in  making  these  charges  upon  everybody  else. 
What  he  should  do  is,  make  the  best  of  the  situation 
and  do  as  Avell  as  he  can,  leaving  the  judgment  as  to 
his  work  to  the  decision  of  others. 

26.  A  Lack  of  Enthusiasm. — Enthusiasm  makes  the 
successful  teacher.  All  the  learning  in  the  world  will 
not  win  success  in  the  school-room  for  the  lazy  teacher. 
President  Chadbourne  says :  "  Without  enthusiasm  no 
teacher  can  have  the  best  success,  however  learned  and 
faithful  and  hard-working  he  may  be.  Enthusiasm  is 
the  heat  that  softens  the  iron,  that  every  blow  may  tell. 
Enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  gives  life  to  the 
student  and  an  impulse  to  every  mental  power.  When 
this  is  accomplished,  there  is  no  more  waste  in  lifting, 
dragging,  or  driving.  It  was  the  enthusiasm  of  Agassiz 
that  clothed  the  commonest  things  with  new  life  and 


THE    TEACHER.  283 

beauty — that  cliariiied  every  listenci*,  and  transformed 
the  aged  and  the  young,  the  ignorant  and  the  learned, 
into  joyful  learners." 

27.  Discouraging  Pupils. — Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby  says 
that  he  never  was  so  ashamed  as  when,  after  giving  a 
boy  a  sharp  reproof,  the  latter  turned  to  him  and  said, 
"  Why  do  you  speak  angrily,  sir  ?  Indeed,  I  am  doing 
the  best  I  can."  Pupils  should  be  praised  rather  than 
discouraged.  Many  of  them  think  but  slowly,  and  the 
teacher  will  need,  therefore,  to  exercise  great  patience 
with  their  seeming  stupidity  and  dullness.  Many  a 
teacher  overshoots  the  mark  in  his  teaching  because 
what  to  him  may  be  very  easy  is  difficult  for  his  pupils. 
This  in  itself  greatly  discourages  them,  and  when,  in  ad- 
dition to  this,  he  complains  of  their  inability  to  meet  his 
expectations,  the  burden  becomes  to  them  doubly  griev- 
ous. Let  him  bring  his  teaching  down  to  their  level, 
correct  his  own  faults,  and  praise  where  praise  is  due, 
and  both  he  and  the  pupils  will  be  the  better  for  it. 

28.  Wounding  the  Feelings  of  Children. — The  teacher 
should  be  cautious  to  make  no  remarks  that  are  likely  to 
hurt  the  feelings  of  his  pupils.  It  is  not  only  unwise, 
but  also  unkind,  to  refer  to  them  as  numskulls,  dunces, 
and  the  like.  Nor  should  the  teacher  compare  his  pupils 
with  one  another.  The  only  result  of  such  comparison, 
when  expressed  before  others,  is  to  create  antagonism  be- 
tween the  parties  compared,  and  no  possible  benefit  can 
result  from  the  practice. 

29.  Being  Arbitrary. — The  teacher  should  not  assume 
that  he  is  the  only  one  interested  in  the  work  in  which 
he  is  engaged,  and  therefore  he  should  not  arbitrarily  de- 
cide every  question  as  it  may  arise  without  consultation 


284  SCHOOL    MANAGEMExNT. 

with  those  whose  business  it  is  to  supervise  the  scliool 
w(.)rk.  Many  a  teacher  has  brought  trouble  on  himself  by 
assuming  the  rights  and  duties  of  both  teacher  and  Direc- 
tors. Nor  should  the  teacher  be  arbitrary  in  his  treat- 
ment of  pupils.  Obedience  will  be  secured  much  more 
readily  when  the  pupils  see  the  justice  and  appreciate  the 
reasonableness  of  his  demands.  No  one  is  so  liable  as 
tiie  teacher  to  become  dogmatic  and  opinionated.  The 
very  nature  of  his  calling  and  his  associations  and  sur- 
roundings are  such  as  to  produce  this  result. 

30.  Gloominess. — Few  are  so  repulsive  to  child-nature 
as  those  who  are  gloomy.  The  teacher  who  is  stiff  and 
pedantic,  who  is  sullen  and  morose,  who  is  gloomy  and 
dejected,  is  out  of  place  in  the  school-room.  Child-life 
is  joyous  and  cheerful,  and  no  man  or  woman  has  any 
right  to  throw  clouds  and  shadows  around  it ;  much  less 
should  such  a  person  act  as  teacher.  None  but  those  of 
a  cheerful  temperament  should  enter  upon  the  work  of 
teaching. 

The  teacher  will  find  many  things  to  try  his  patience, 
many  things  to  vex  and  cross  him,  many  things  that  will 
discourage  and  irritate  him ;  but  through  it  all  let  him 
keep  a  cheerful  countenance.  Let  him  join  in  a  hearty 
laugh  whenever  there  is  an  opportunity.  No  one  needs 
more  to  look  on  the  bright  side  of  life.  Some  one  has 
said,  "■  Whatever  temper  you  have  suffered  to  grow  up 
to  the  gradual  habit  of  years,  that  will  get  a  daily  reve- 
lation over  your  desks  as  visible  as  any  maps  on  the 
walls."  If  that  habit  be  one  of  gloominess,  what  must 
be  the  unfortunate  influence  on  the  children  ! 

Teacher,  cultivate  a  cheerful  disposition  and  a  pleasant 
countenance.     You  will  relieve  your  work  of  half  the 


THE  TEACHER.  285 

difficulties  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  Let  your  entrance 
into  the  school-room  be  such  as  to  convince  your  pupils 
that  you  are  both  good-humored  and  good-natured. 
Goldsmith  expressed  more  pliilosophy  than  he  dreamed 
of  in  his  description  of  the  schoolmaster  of  "sweet 
Auburn :" 

"A  man  severe  he  was,  and  stern  to  view  ; 
I  knew  him  well,  and  every  truant  knew. 
Well  had  the  boding  tremblers  learned  to  trace 
The  day's  disasters  in  his  morning  face." 

Let  the  effort  of  every  teacher's  life  be  to  avoid  fur- 
nishing the  text  for  a  similar  quatrain  by  some  future 
Goldsmith. 


THE    EISTD. 


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UCLA-Young  Research   Library 

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SOUTHERN    BRANCH 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA 
LIBRARY 

LOS   ANGELES.  CALIF. 


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